Freedom of Religion/Limitations - Restrictions/Jurisprudence

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Under American jurisprudence, what permissible exceptions exist?

The Supreme Court ruled in ​Employment Division v. Smith ​(1990) that the First Amendment does not provide for religious exemptions to a generally applicable law. In the case, a Native American was fired from his job and denied unemployment benefits for using Peyote, a substance sometimes smoked during religious ceremonies. The court had previously ruled in ​Sherbert v. Verner​ (1963) that the First Amendment does provide for that type of exception unless there is a compelling reason to enforce the law anyway (Munoz 2008, 1083) . However, the Supreme Court’s ruling in ​Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal​ (2006) appears to undermine this ruling. In that case, a religious group claimed the right to use a drug called hoasca. The Supreme Court held that, under the Religious Freedom Restoration Act, the government is obligated to grant religious exemptions to general laws unless the government can demonstrate a compelling state interest in regulating the drug’s religious use (“Gonzales v. Centro”). Pandemic: ​The COVID-19 pandemic has caused many governments to limit religious gatherings. For example, at the outset of the pandemic, Maryland banned gatherings of more than ten people, including religious services (Pitts 2020) . Ensuring Success of a Government Operation​: In ​Goldman v. Weinberger ​(1986) , the court upheld an Air Force ban on headgear, which was challenged by an Orthodox Jew seeking to wear a yarmulke while on duty. The court found that the Air Force had a legitimate interest in ensuring obedience and conformity (“Landmark”). Non-Discrimination Law (a notable non-exception)​: In a landmark case, ​Masterpiece Cake Shop v. Colorado Civil Rights Commission (​ 2017) , the Supreme Court decided that Colorado anti-discrimination law could not compel a baker to violate his religious beliefs by baking a cake for a same-sex wedding (“Masterpiece”).

Munoz: https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=9420940680730001010910981140831230860340 080590680890431021271071040850000730891130761030520380601050291090030690661211 201080260520780270280480911210290090881160250670750410221101001200720910030790 82021094097027125023004126080023120030064020093085097&EXT=pdf

“Landmark”: ​https://billofrightsinstitute.org/cases/

“Gonzalez v. Centro”: ​https://www.oyez.org/cases/2005/ 04-1084

“Masterpiece”: ​https://www.oyez.org/cases/2017/ 16-111

Gomes: https://digitalcommons.law.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2450& context=lawreview

Koev: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-um.researchport.umd.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=bb31 f9a9-0997-4bb0-a34c-eeb97b46b9c7%40sdc-v-sessmgr01&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2Z Q%3d%3d#AN=136782604& db=asn