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Though the Roman Republic and Roman Empire did not codify into law what modern scholars would call freedom of association, associational life and philosophy concerning association were still present. The Twelve Tables, a foundational document of the Roman Republic ratified by the Centuriate Assembly in 449 B.C.E., mentions association, but sparsely. Table VIII stated that “No person shall hold nocturnal meetings in the city” (qtd. in “The Twelve Tables”). The law did not expand upon the types of meetings prohibited, but it could possibly be referring to the collegia:
“Collegia—numerous private associations with specialized functions, such as craft or trade guilds, burial societies, and societies dedicated to special religious worship—seem to have carried on their affairs and to have held property corporately in republican times. The emperors, viewing the collegia with some suspicion, enacted from the beginning that no collegium could be founded without state authority and that their rights of manumitting slaves and taking legacies be closely regulated” (Millner and Carozza).
Collegia were generally viewed in relation to corporations and social activity, rather than political activity. Nevertheless, Romans were free to engage in these associations taking into consideration one’s social class, occupation, gender, age, family, and the collegium’s distrust from the state. Guilds, collegia that emerged during the late Roman Republic were specific organizations of artisans and merchants, were specifically mentioned in the Twelve Tables in Table VIII as well: “These guild members shall have the power ... to make for themselves any rule that they may wish provided that they impair no part of the public law” (qtd. in “The Twelve Tables”). With restriction, Romans were able to associate publicly in the Republic. Starting from the reign of Emperor Diocletian in the third century, however, the imperial government attempted to restrict membership of the guilds to higher-class, skilled artisans and financially exploit them for imperial gain, significantly weakening the guilds by the fourth century. Collegia in general, however, survived through the Roman and Byzantine Empires (Encyclopedia Britannica).
Association and social life is mentioned a substantial amount, in the work of Cicero, a prominent philosopher of the late Roman Republic. In Book I of Cicero’s De Officiis (“On Moral Duties”), he noted that “Nature too, by virtue of reason, brings man into relations of mutual intercourse and society with his fellow-men; generates in him a special love for his children; prompts him to promote and attend social gatherings and public assemblies;” (Cicero, Book I Section 4). He additionally wrote of the importance of participating in public affairs in his De Republica (“On the Republic”), writing, conversing, and discovering with others. According to Cicero, people associate for the common good and the prosperity of the whole, and that “association of the citizens in a happy and honourable life ; for that is the original purpose of men's coming together, and it should be accomplished for them in their commonwealth partly by established customs and partly by laws.” (Cicero, Book IV Section 3).
Compared to associational life in the Roman Republic, that of the Roman Empire was much more restricted. In his letters to Emperor Trajan, who ruled from 98 C.E. to 117 C.E., Pliny the Younger, Governor of Bithynia (located in present-day Turkiye), spoke in multiple correspondences about association. In letters 10.33 and 10.34, Pliny asked for permission from the Emperor to create a firefighting organization, to which the Emperor responded refused because of Bithynia’s history of groups becoming political, even if they did not start out as such. As the Roman Republic transitioned to the Roman Empire, collegia became more political and more commonly made up of the lower class (Umbrello). Pliny was required to ask the Emperor first before creating the group because of “The lex IuliIa [a] late republican era law which mandated that the formation of any association or club (collegia) must be granted by either the senate or the emperor” which came about because of the elites’ distrust of lower class associations, especially those in the imperial provinces that were more likely to have political instability (Umbrello). Trajan was additionally weary of religious associations, as shown in Pliny’s letter concerning Christians convening to eat together: “Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations” (Pliny, Letter 10.96). This is written in one of the most famous letters between Pliny and Trajan, demonstrating “Roman official aversion to freedom of association” (Liggio, 2013, 57). Emperors would commonly provide provincial governments with mandata, “official set[s] of administrative guidelines,” citing Emperor Trajan’s “suspension of potentially disruptive associations or clubs (hetaeriae, 10.96, the well-known letter concerning Christians),” (Fuhrmann, 2011, 147-148).
Political riots were a somewhat frequent form of public association in the Roman Republic and Empire, and were often provoked by economic concerns, taxation, famine, or political problems and corruption (Aldrete, 2013). Aldrete emphasized the importance of keeping in mind the documentation bias; a higher frequency of riots was present in more well-documented periods, and lower frequency for the opposite. He additionally described the nature of these riots:
“Many outbreaks, including some of the most destructive, were organized, instigated and exploited not by the indigent, but rather by Rome’s political and social elites. Furthermore, acts of violent urban collective behaviour often occurred within the constraints of a tacit but nevertheless well-recognized set of informal societal norms” (Aldrete, 2013, 425).
Politically-motivated association was active and organized, and did not only involve the lower class. In addition to political elite organizing riots, “Rome’s collegia, or professional organizations, also offered fertile ground for organizing riots and recruiting participants, and this potential probably accounts for the authorities’ periodic attempts to ban or restrict these organizations” (Aldrete, 2013, 434). The amount of repression the riots received depended upon a variety of factors, including the location of the riot, level of violence, and attitude of the emperor or governor dealing with it. At circuses and theaters, more extreme behaviors were tolerated than in public squares, for example (Aldrete, 2013, 427). In Roman-occupied cities such as Ephesus (located in present-day Turkiye), “an unlawful assembly the City could be charged with ‘stasis,’ that is, with acting seditiously, creating factions in the Empire, rioting…if questioned, the Ephesians could give no legal justification for this particular meeting, and so [could]… be used as leverage to take away Ephesus’ freedoms” (“Riots and Roman Law”, 2016).
References:
Aldrete, Gregory. 2013. “Riots” in The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome, ch. 24 425-440. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-ancient-rome/riots/EFF6CDF92E7CABE86B9ADC58BFF642F4
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. “On Moral Duties (De Officiis).” Online Library of Liberty. Translated by Andrew Peabody. Accessed June 21, 2024. https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/cicero-on-moral-duties-de-officiis
Cicero, Marcus Tullius. “On the Republic.” Attalus. Translated by C.W. Keys, 1928. Accessed June 21, 2024. https://www.attalus.org/cicero/republic1a.html
Encyclopedia Britannica. n.d. “Guild.” Accessed June 20, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/guild-trade-association#ref261300
Fuhrmann, Christopher. 2011. “‘Let there be no violence contrary to my wish’: Emperors and Provincial Order” in Policing the Roman Empire: Soldiers, Administration, and Public Order, ch. 6 146-169. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199737840.003.0006
Liggio, Leonardo. 2013. “Historical Sketch of Freedom of Association in the West.” Journal of Private Enterprise 28, no. 2. http://journal.apee.org/index.php?title=Spring_13_4
Millner, Alfred, and Paolo Carozza. n.d. "Roman law." Encyclopedia Britannica, Accessed June 20, 2024. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-law
Pliny. 111-113 A.D. “Pliny, Letters. 10.96-97” Georgetown University Texts. Accessed June, 2024. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/texts/pliny.html
“Riots and Roman Law.” 2016. Underground Network. Medium. https://medium.com/acts-study-guide/riot-in-ephesus-477616626d58
“The Twelve Tables.” 449 B.C.E. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. https://avalon.law.yale.edu/ancient/twelve_tables.asp
Umbrello, Steven. 2015. “Collegia, Stability, and the Vox Populi.” World History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/816/collegia-stability-and-the-vox-populi/
Romania enacted its first constitution in 1866 which held until it was rewritten in 1923. Title II, Article XXI of the 1866 Constitution of Romania states guarantees the freedom of conscience so long as the celebration of those religions and faiths do not pose a threat to public order. It also acknowledges the Oriental Orthodox religion as the dominant religion while also asserting government oversight of the Romanian Orthodox Church, which was considered the national religion of the state at the time.
Sources:
“1866 CONSTITUTION.” n.d. THE ROYAL HOUSE of HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN
ROMANIA. Accessed August 3, 2024. https://www.royalhouseofromaniahohenzollern-sigmaringen.com/constitution-1866. +
Russias history with the freedom of religion is somewhat complex. In its first constitution in 1906, Chapter II, Article 49 states, “Russian subjects shall enjoy liberty of conscience. The conditions under which this liberty is enjoyed shall be determined by law.” However, this does not necessarily mean there is a freedom to religion and to practice such religion. With that being said, the 1918 Declaration of the Rights of the Laboring and Exploited People does outline the freedom of religion as well as the separation of church and state, “Every citizen may profess or none at all. Any legal disabilities with the profession of any religion or none are abolished.” The Law on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations was ratified on September 26, 1997. This law grants religious freedom, equality, and prohibits religious discrimination.
References:
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 21, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/stwar000
1&id=547&men_tab=srchresults.
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 21, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/in
tcon5&id=426&men_tab=srchresults.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “Russia: Information on the Law ‘on Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations’ and Its Impact on Religious Minorities.” Refworld. Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, November 1997. Last modified November 1997. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ab968.html. +
Rwanda’s first constitution was drafted and enacted in 1961. Within the Constitution of the Rwandan Republic, Chapter III, Article 12 asserts that the “fundamental liberties as stipulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man shall be guaranteed to all citizens save the exceptions to be regulated by law.” The Declaration of the Rights of Man (and the Citizen) was a document drafted by France’s National Constituent Assembly in 1789 during the French Revolution.
The 2003 Constitution of Rwanda was ratified on May 26, 2003. Articles 16, 37, 57, and 136 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 4 declares Rwanda a secular state.
Source:
J. Webster [1964] - French and English
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/cowdocs?state=&tfile=cowresd0576-3.pdf
Constitution Project. “Rwanda 2003 (Rev. 2015) Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Rwanda_2015?lang=en. +
The Saint Christopher and Nevis Constitution Order 1983 was ratified on June 23, 1983. Articles 11 and 15 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. The National Assembly of Saint Kitts and Nevis . “Constitution of St. Christopher and Nevis.” Nevis Island Administration. Last modified October 28, 2017. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://nia.gov.kn/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Constitution-of-St-Christopher-and-Nevis.pdf. +
The Saint Lucia Constitution Order 1978 was ratified on 20th December 1978. Articles 1, 9, and 15 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious freedom. Government of Saint Lucia. Government of Saint Lucia. Last modified 2022. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.govt.lc/constitution1#protection1. +
The Saint Vincent Constitution Order 1979 was ratified on 26th July 1979. Articles 9 and 13.3 grant religious freedom and prohibit religious discrimination. The preamble declares the Supremacy of God. House of Assembly of Saint Vincent. “Constitution of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.” Government of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. Last modified November 11, 2005. Accessed June 27, 2022. https://www.gov.vc/images/visitors/1979_constitution.pdf. +
The Constitution of the Independent State of Samoa was ratified on May 10, 1961. Articles 11, 12, and 15 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. The preamble declares that Samoa is based on Christian principles. Constitutional Convention of Samoa. “Constitution of the Independent State of Samoa 1960.” Government of Samoa. Government of Samoa, 2017. Last modified 2017. Accessed June 28, 2022. https://www.samoagovt.ws/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/Constitution-of-the-Independent-State-of-Samoa-1960.pdf. +
Declaration of Citizens' Rights and of the fundamental principles of the San Marinese legal order was ratified on July 8, 1974. Article 4 and 6 grant religious equality, freedom, and prohibit religious discrimination. Right of Assembly. “San Marino: Constitution - 1974.” Last modified 2022. Accessed June 28, 2022. https://www.rightofassembly.info/assets/downloads/1974_Constitution_of_San_Marino.pdf. +
King Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud decreed the basic law of governance on March 1, 1992. Article 1 declares Saudi Arabia an Islamic State and the official religion Islam. There are no official religious freedom guaranteed in Saudia Arabi. King Fahd Bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud. “The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia.” Basic Law of Governance, The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Last modified March 1, 1992. Accessed June 28, 2022. https://www.saudiembassy.net/basic-law-governance. +
Adam Smith, one of the leading thinkers of the Scottish Enlightenment, was personally very critical of religion. “He was deeply critical of Christianity and Judaism, both because of the discriminatory views of his era, and because of his own observation of hypocrisy within Protestantism.” (Ward 43, 2004). He did however have a background of mentors who dabbled with theology. Professor Gershom Carmichael had a rational and empirical approach to religion, he was not a part of the “enthusiastic” movements that were popular in Scotland at the time. Professor Carmichael was a professor of moral philosophy at the University of Glasgow and was the mentor of Francis Hutcheson, who became the mentor of Adam Smith (Ward 49, 2004). Francis Hutcheson argued that the reality of God could be discovered through natural theology and led an educational reform in Scotland. He taught courses in English rather than Latin , he led the University of Glasgow away from Calvinism and instead used a scientific approach to study religion, God, and morality (Ward 49, 2004). Adam Smith would eventually inherit Hutcheson’s post at the University of Glasgow and was expected to lecture on theology. While this sounds like a great place to learn about what Smith thought about theology, “at the time of his death, Smith ordered the destruction of any of his writings that, he felt, failed to offer a unique contribution to human knowledge and understanding. The fact that there is no trace of his materials on natural theology would seem to suggest that, for Smith, they were without great significance. (Ward 50, 2004). Adam Smith’s personal religious views are left to interpretation; his approach to religion is approached very scientifically.
Smith was not the only Scottish Enlightenment figure will this approach to religion; “figures such as David Hume, Francis Hutcheson, and Smith seem to have resisted all established religion. They were fascinated by the scientific insights of figures such as Issac Newton and Kepler.” (Ward 49, 2004). Adam Smith’s personal relationship with religion doesn’t mean that he avoided discussing it in his published works. In The Wealth of Nations, Smith critiques state-supported religious monopolies, especially those that must use force to enforce their monopoly. (Griswold 396, 1997). “When the authorized teachers of religion propagate through the great body of the people, doctrines subversive of the authority of the sovereign, it is by violence only, or by the force of a standing army, that he can maintain his authority.” (Smith 651, 1776). So, to avoid this violence, states should refrain from forcing their religious monopolies on the people. “Smith has argued that the causes of violence in connection with religion are (i) the perception by the dominant religion that assistance from the state (in the form of police powers) is available to increase the size of its flock, with all the corresponding temporal benefits; and (ii) the feelings of resentment on the part of the persecuted religions” (Griswold 409, 1997). Following this, he believes that “such a clergy, when attacked by a set of popular and bold, though perhaps stupid and ignorant enthusiasts, feel themselves as perfectly defenseless as the indolent, effeminate, and full fed nations of the southern parts of Asia, when they were invaded by the active, hardy, and hungry Tartars of the north. Such a clergy, upon such an emergency, have commonly no other resource than to call upon the civil magistrate to persecute, destroy, or drive out their adversaries, as disturbers of the public peace.” (Smith 643, 1776). The Wealth of Nations is about, well, how nations should build their wealth. His analysis of religion in this book should be taken as his advice on how to achieve a civil society. Smith goes on to suggest that states should focus their education on science rather than religion so that people would be “less tempted to explain puzzling natural phenomena in religious terms.” (Griswold 411, 1997).
Adam Smith’s view is that the state should embrace free markets, an idea analyzed in detail in The Wealth of Nations. This leads to his general goal of creating a stable government and economy (Ward 45, 2009). While he himself doesn’t advocate religion and instead advocates science , he recognizes some areas of freedom of religion that he incorporates into Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations. He supports separation of church and state, allowing liberty of religious belief, and creating a free market of religions (Griswold 411, 1997). In The Wealth of Nations, Smith argues “In a country where the law favored the teachers of no one religion more than those of another, it would not be necessary that any of them should have any particular or immediate dependency upon the sovereign or executive power; or that he should have anything to do either in appointing or in dismissing them from their offices.” (Smith 650, 1776). Here, Smith is arguing for separation of church and state; he further argues that by allowing freedom of religion and creating a large market of religions, it will reduce the competition between different religions and improve their relationships with the state. “The teachers of each sect, seeing themselves surrounded on all sides with more adversaries than friends, would be obliged to learn that candour and moderation which are so seldom to be found among the teachers of those great sects, whose tenets, being supported by the civil magistrate, are held in veneration by almost all the inhabitants of extensive kingdoms and empires, and who, therefore, see nothing round them but followers, disciples, and humble admirers. The teachers of each little sect, finding themselves almost alone, would be obliged to respect those of almost every other sect; and the concession which they would mutually find in both convenient and agreeable to make one to another, might in time, probably reduce the doctrine of the greater part of them to that pure and rational religion, free from every mixture of absurdity, imposture, or fanaticism, such as wise men have, in all ages of the world, wished to see established…” (Smith 647, 1776). He did, however, not believe that these ideals could be achieved on their own. Smith argued that a liberal education in science was required to support these ideals. (Griswold 411, 1997). “Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition; and where all the superior ranks of people were secured from it, the inferior ranks could not be much exposed to it” (Smith 650, 1779)
Adam Smith is not the only Scottish Enlightenment figure to speak about religion; David Hume had his own opinions on religion. In his essay Of Superstition and Enthusiasm, he argues “that superstition is an enemy to civil liberty, and enthusiasm a friend to it. As superstition groans under the dominion of priests, and enthusiasm is destructive of all ecclesiastical power, this sufficiently accounts for the present observation.” (Hume 1758). He explains that in England’s civil wars, the whigs were friends to toleration, and it was their tolerating spirit that helped to reconcile the differences between the competing Roman Catholics and other Christians. The “tolerating spirit” Hume is referring to here, can be interpreted as religious freedom.
As stated earlier, Scottish Enlightenment figures tend to be highly critical of religion and tend to speak to religion in the context of creating a more civil society (Ward 49, 2004). With this context, I can hypothesize that Adam Smith supported the ideals of freedom of religion. Separation of church and state, liberty of religious belief, and a free market of religions sounds very similar to the freedom of religion in the United States. Adam Smith’s works were very influential on the founding fathers when it came to designing our government (Smith 2004). “The Wealth of Nations was also read and discussed by those in America seeking to form a new government based on preserving “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” and an economic system that could assure America of prosperity and self-sufficiency” (Smith 9, 2004). After reading through many sections of The Wealth of Nations, it is evident that the founding fathers took some examples from it about how to build and maintain a free-market economy. Knowing that they were already taking advice from Adam Smith and other Scottish Enlightenment figures about the economy and governance, it is within reason that the founding fathers took the advice of the Scottish Enlightenment figures about the relationship between church and state to ensure a civil society. By allowing freedom of religion, it should reduce competition between religions and frees the government from being stuck supporting the state-supported religion. Smith himself said that wise men wished to see these ideals established in governments, and the brand new government of the United States gave the founding fathers the opportunity to test these ideals.
References:
Griswold, Charles L. “Religion and Community: Adam Smith on the Virtues of Liberty.” Journal of the History of Philosophy 35, no. 3 (1997): 395–419. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/225729.
Hume, David. Essays Moral, Political, Literary. Edited by Eugene F. Miller. 1758. Reprint, Liberty Fund Inc., 1987. https://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hume-essays-moral-political-literary-lf-ed.
Smith, Adam. AN INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES OF THE WEALTH OF NATIONS. Edited by Jim Manis. Penn State Electronic Classics Series. 1776. Reprint, The Pennsylvania State University, 2005. https://www.rrojasdatabank.info/Wealth-Nations.pdf.
Smith, Roy C. Adam Smith and the Origins of American Enterprise: How the Founding Fathers Turned to a Great Economist’s Writings and Created the American Economy. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2004. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Adam_Smith_and_the_Origins_of_American_E/-CIHI4m578sC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=adam+smith+and+the+founding+fathers&pg=PR9&printsec=frontcover.
Ward, Thomas J. “Adam Smith’s Views on Religion and Social Justice.” International Journal on World Peace 21, no. 2 (2004): 43–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20753440.
The Constitution of the Republic of Senegal was ratified on 7 January 2001. Articles 1, 5, 8, 22, and 24 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 1 declares Senegal to be a secular state. Constitution Project. “Senegal 2001 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed June 28, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Senegal_2016?lang=en. +
The Constitution of the Republic of Serbia was ratified November 8, 2006. Article 5, 21, 39, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 57, 79, and 81 grant extensive religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 11 declares Serbia a secular state and creates a separation of church and state. The National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia. “CALLING A REPUBLIC REFERENDUM TO ENDORSE THE NEW CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SERBIA.” Government of the Republic of Serbia . Last modified 2006. Accessed June 28, 2022. http://www.parlament.gov.rs/upload/documents/Constitution_%20of_Serbia_pdf.pdf. +
The Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles Act was ratified on June 18, 1993. The Articles 21 and 27 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit discrimination. Government of Seychelles . “Constitution of the Republic Seychelles (Preparation and Promulgation) Act, 1992.” Last modified 1993. https://www.gov.sc/documents/Constitution%20of%20Seychelles%20.pdf. +
The Constitution of Sierra Leone was ratified on October 1, 1991. Articles 6.2, 8.3(b), 13(e), and 24 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Parliament of Sierra Leone. “The Constitution of Sierra Leone, 1991.” Public Sector Reform Unit. Office of the President, 2016. Last modified 2016. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://psru.gov.sl/sites/default/files/Constitution%20of%20Sierra%20Leone%201991.pdf. +
The Constitution of Singapore was ratified on 22 December 1965. Articles 12, 15, 16, and 150.5(iii) grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 153 grants a provision for a council to regulate Muslim affairs. Parliament of Singapore . “CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE.” Singapore Statutes Online. Last modified December 1, 2021. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/CONS1963.
The first assertion of the freedom of religion in the Republic of Singapore is in the first constitution of the Republic in 1959 after becoming independent from the United Kingdom. The right is detailed in article 15; which also details that a person may not be compelled to pay taxes for religious purposes outside his own religion as well as generally describing the freedoms of each religious group. It is important to note Singapore also records the same article in the 1963/1965 Constitution after being expelled from Malaysia.
Republic of Singapore. 1959. “Singapore’s Constitution of 1959 with Amendments through 2010.” Constitute Project. 1959. https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/sin132840.pdf.
———. 1965. “Constitution of the Republic of Singapore - Singapore Statutes Online.” Sso.agc.gov.sg. 1965. https://sso.agc.gov.sg/Act/CONS1963?ValidDate=20230424.
The Republic of Singapore. 1963. “Singapore 1963 (Rev. 2016) Constitution - Constitute.” Www.constituteproject.org. 1963. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Singapore_2016. +
Constitution Of The Slovak Republic The articles 12.2, 24, and 25.2 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 1 states that Slovakia is not bound by any religion. National Council of the Slovak Republic. “Constitution of the Slovak Republic.” President of the Slovak Republic. Last modified 2017. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://www.prezident.sk/upload-files/46422.pdf.
The first assertion of the freedom of religion of the Slovak Republic is in the 1992 Constitution after the split of Czechoslovakia. The article 24 highlights the guarantees to the freedom of religion and indicates that the freedom may only be limited under lawful conditions of impeding on others religion.
Assertions of the freedom of religion have existed in the domain of Slovakia including the 1920 Czechoslovakian constitution, the earliest instance would be the 1782 Edict of Tolerance as part of the Kingdom of Austria which included limited religious freedoms for certain religions and sects of Christianity.
“Slovakia 1992 (Rev. 2017) Constitution - Constitute.” n.d. Www.constituteproject.org. Accessed August 4, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Slovakia_2017. +
The Constitution of the Republic of Slovenia was ratified on December 23, 1991. Articles 14, 16, 41, 63, and 123 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious. Article 7 separates church and state. National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia. “THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF SLOVENIA.” Republic of Slovenia. Last modified 2016. Accessed June 30, 2022. https://www.varuh-rs.si/en/about-us/legal-framework/the-constitution-of-the-republic-of-slovenia/. +
The Solomon Islands Independence Order 1978 was ratified on 8th June 1978. Articles 3, 11, and 15.4 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Parliament of the Solomon Islands . “The Solomon Islands Independence Order 1978.” Last modified 1978. Accessed July 3, 2022. https://www.parliament.gov.sb/files/business&procedure/constitution.htm. +
The Provisional Federal Constitution of Somalia was ratified on August 1, 2012. Article 11 declares religious equality and prohibits religious discrimination, while article 17 declares religious freedom. Article 2 declares Islam the state religion and that no other religion can be propagated in the country. Constitution Project. “Somalia 2012 Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed July 5, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Somalia_2012?lang=en. +