Behaviorism

Behaviorism

Right	Section	Contents
Freedom of Expression	Philosophical Origins	Burrhus Frederic Skinner, a notable American psychologist specializing in behaviorism, interpreted freedom as a conditioned misunderstanding. Expression would be classified as individual behavioral responses to environmental stimuli as it concurs with Skinner’s operant conditioning (Cherry 2023). His contribution suggests that behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to occur again and those that are punished will have a reduced likelihood of recurrence. This exists in the context of the behaviorist approach introduced to the field of psychology by John B. Watson. Also known as the father of behaviorism, he claims behaviorism “is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior” (Watson 1913, 158–177). Accordingly, inner thoughts and experiences are disconsidered as independent phenomena and behavior consists of actions that are externally shaped and conditioned. Freedom of expression would thus be understood as a fallacy under behaviorism, due to the idea that humans are inevitably shaped by their environment and not by their determined expression. A truly free expression, shaped by personal, mental, complex internal influences, is nonexistent in the world of behaviorism as it relates to Skinner. The fundamental ability to express oneself, granted and protected by a governmental institution, is distinguished from the freedom to control how expression is shaped. A behaviorist approach would analyze expression as it relates to the environmental influences that shaped it. Where this approach conflicts with true freedom is the source of expression and not the act of expression itself. Skinner writes, “A person never becomes truly self-reliant. Even though he deals effectively with things, he is necessarily dependent upon those who have taught him to do so” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 24). His conclusion suggests there cannot be an expression that exists independently from a source of control because people exist in environments that are shaped by people and structures in influential positions. Thus, rather than refuting this idea on the grounds of social empowerment, Skinner rejected a nonscientific approach and suggested manipulating the environment to influence people’s actions (Skinner [1971] 2024, 24). Skinner did not propose this as a recommendation for only the future, rather as a societal constant that can be shaped to benefit the world. “He argued that our increasingly detailed knowledge of behavior principles can be used in designing and engineering the environmental conditions needed to produce intentionally designed behaviors” (Baldwin, “Mead and Skinner,” 115). Behaviorism is inherently permissive of expression and does not impede on the common right of freedom of expression. However, its approach is distinguished by the understanding of how free expression can be and is controlled. Skinner modeled this control, known as operant conditioning, in a chamber commonly known as a skinner box. In this model experiment, the subject is put in a box and is rewarded or punished based on the chosen actions. Skinner experimented with rats and eventually pigeons, but his efforts encouraged a more encompassing perspective wherein humans are the subject and the world is the box. Skinner’s book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, offers further insight into the radical behaviorism that underlines his beliefs. He encouraged psychological research in an effort to provide order to society and shape behaviors, thereby devaluing human agency and the idea of free will. He noted, “Dependence on things is not independence,” to explain why people cannot be considered free agents, because they rely on people and institutions like schools and teachers to learn (Skinner [1971] 2024, 91). Implications on freedom of expression are dependent on whether one adopts this perspective or not. For the behaviorist, especially those like Skinner who are considered radical, freedom of expression may have never existed due to the environment predetermining what is learned. In a 1958 article for Science, Skinner exemplified a practical application of this approach. He wrote, “Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex forms of behavior” (Skinner 1958, 971). The comprehensive behaviorist approach acknowledges the source and the product of human behavior and does not regard freedom of expression as separate from the scope of control. While there is criticism within the behaviorist approach which sees flaws in societal structures rooted in lack of control from actors in influential positions, Skinner proposes solutions in his book. “The Skinnerian framework not only suggests sources of such behavior but also provides a rationale for the treatment of deviance” (Bassiouni and Sewell, "Scientific Approaches," 1350). In addressing societal imperfections, Skinner encouraged the production of a technology of behavior that would influence public policy based on behaviorist psychology studies. (Skinner [1971] 2024, 10). He suggests this technology to be useful in preventing “the catsrophe,” as he writes throughout his book. He then lists some catasrophes being “unchecked breeding, the urestrained affleunce which exhausts resources and pollutes the environment, and the imminence of nuclear war” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 208-209). Skinner’s suggested technology aims to understand human behavior to prevent foreseen dangerous outcomes and create an “environment which makes [people] wise and compassionate” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 168). However, critics of Skinner’s contributions argue against the control he suggests due to its totalitarian nature, effectively reducing the accessibility to freedoms. Noam Chomsky, a prominent linguist and activist, wrote an essay, The Case Against B.F. Skinner, in response to B.F. Skinner’s Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he wrote “He is accused of immorality and praised as a spokesman for science and rationality in human affairs” (Chomsky, 1971, 1). The behaviorist approach emphasizes strict adherence to science, while critics may claim that behaviorism neglects important scientific factors due to an exclusive focus on external and observable factors. Freedom of expression, being a field of study that is more easily observed, may be interesting to a behaviorist because its application is seen in people’s behavior. References Baldwin, John D. "Mead and Skinner: Agency and Determinism." Behaviorism 16, no. 2 (1988): 109–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41236063. Bassiouni, M. Cherif, and Alan F. Sewell. "Scientific Approaches to Juvenile Delinquency and Criminality." DePaul Law Review 23, no. 4 (Summer 1974): 1344–1407. Cherry, Kendra. 2023. “What Is Operant Conditioning?” Verywell Mind. February 24, 2023. https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863. Chomsky, Noam. n.d. “The Case against B.F. Skinner.” https://www.ehu.eus/HEB/wp-content/uploads/2012/KEPA/The%20Case%20Against%20B.F.%20Skinner.pdf. Skinner, B. F. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing, 2024. Skinner, B. F. 1958. “Teaching Machines: From the Experimental Study of Learning Come Devices Which Arrange Optimal Conditions for Self-Instruction.” Science 128, no. 3330 (October): 969–77. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.128.3330.969. Watson, John B. "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." Psychological Review 20, no. 2 (1913): 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074428. “What Is Behaviorist Theory? Understanding Its Influence on the Work of a Behavior Analyst - Behavioral Collective.” 2021. June 8, 2021. https://behavioralcollective.com/insights/what-is-behaviorist-theory/#:~:text=Radical%20behaviorism%20is%20.
Freedom of Association	Philosophical Origins	Freedom of association underpins collective action, social movements, and personal development. However, it is not universally protected and is often only implied in many countries. The field of psychology can assist in uncovering the roots of why people associate and if it is a productive freedom in societies. Behaviorism contributes to society’s understanding of freedom of association through its emphasis on the roles of reinforcement, punishment, and environmental influences in shaping human decision-making. Behaviorism emerged within the field of psychology in the early 20th century. Its key distinguisher is that it emphasizes the study of observable behavior over internal mental states (Malone 1975, 141). The “father of behaviorism,” John B. Watson, launched the “Behavioral Revolution” following his 1913 article and lecture “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It” (Moore 2017, 12). This new phenomenon continued to spread through key figures and their theories: B.F. Skinner and his operant conditioning, William James and his ideo-motor action theory, and George Herbert Mead and his analysis of reflective intelligence (Baldwin 1988; Malone 1975). Freedom of association can be understood through a behaviorist lens through its attention to why people join groups. This psychological field argues that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning, and therefore the reactions people receive based on their group status influence their trajectory in such groups. If individuals receive positive reinforcement for joining a group – such as social approval, increased resources, a sense of belonging – then they are more likely to continue participating in that group (Skinner 2002, 44). However, if an individual receives negative reinforcement for their association with a group – such as social ostracism, punishment, legal penalties – then they will be more likely to disassociate with that group (Skinner 2002). A positive experience with group association will reinforce someone’s behavior of seeking out and maintaining associations, but the threat of negative consequences acts as a deterrent to behavior that would tend toward group participation. Watson and other behaviorists believed that understanding the science of behavior would benefit human welfare, as these concepts would be grounded in science and naturalistic principles, rather than mental and social assumptions (Moore 2017, 1). A key tenet of behaviorism is the notion that the environment one is surrounded by greatly influences behavior (Baldwin 1988). Mead emulates this idea in his reflective intelligence theory. If one has several response options available, the person will use significant symbols and established norms to choose an action (Baldwin 1988, 117). Correspondingly, Skinner argued that his operant behavior theory “is directed toward the future: a person acts in order that something will happen, and the order is temporal” (Baldwin 1988, 121). At the individual level, people are influenced by social norms and peers. They are inclined to join groups that are socially acceptable and supported by their peers, thus receiving positive reinforcement from their ability to conform to group norms and activities (Skinner 2002). Moreover, people utilize reference groups in order to determine their attitudes toward ideas (Stafford 1966, 69). They influence both aspiration levels and kinds of behaviors, establishing approved perspectives and actions. Politically, the way a government protects or does not protect the freedom of association affects how individuals will behave. If this right is protected legally, group formation is positively reinforced; if this right is infringed upon such as in authoritarian regimes, people fear group association and act according to the negative reinforcer (Baum 2016; Skinner 2002). Likewise, individualistic communities place more value on personal autonomy than collectivist communities that emphasize group participation. Thus, Skinner argues that societies should be constructed – through scientific study – around ways to emphasize positive reinforcement and abandon negative reinforcers, as these only hinder collective action. He views political liberty as the absence of aversive conditions – like detrimental control and negative reinforcers (Machan 1975, 3). People should be free to associate because behavior modification through the implementation of correct reinforcers will build a more harmonious society. Author Carson Bennett states, “By adopting the radical behavioral viewpoint of B.F. Skinner, we would truly become the masters of our fate and captains of our environment” (Bennet 1990, 18). References Baldwin, John D. “MEAD AND SKINNER: AGENCY AND DETERMINISM.” Behaviorism 16, no. 2 (1988): 109–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41236063. Baum, William M. “Freedom” in Understanding Behaviorism: Behavior, Culture, and Evolution. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119143673.ch9. Bennet, Carson M. “A Skinnerian View of Human Freedom.” The Humanist 50, no. 4 (1990): 18. https://www.proquest.com/openview/6e7dbdc248e3d859911b8ae9221f818a/1.pdf?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=35529. Machan, Tibor. “Skinner vs. Freedom, Dignity, and Liberty.” Reason (1975). https://reason.com/1975/01/01/skinner-vs-freedom-dignity-and/. Malone, John C. “William James and B. F. Skinner: Behaviorism, Reinforcement, and Interest.” Behaviorism 3, no. 2 (1975): 140–51. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27758839. Moore, J. “John B. Watson’s Classical S–R Behaviorism.” The Journal of Mind and Behavior 38, no. 1 (2017): 1–34. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44631526. Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity. Hackett Publishing. 2002. Skinner, B.F. “The Operational Analysis of Psychological Terms.” The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7 (1984): 547-581. https://userpages.umbc.edu/~catania/ABACNJ/Pages%20from%20BBS%20BFS%204%20terms.pdf. Stafford, James E. “Effects of Group Influences on Consumer Brand Preferences.” Journal of Marketing Research 3, no. 1 (1966): 68–75. https://doi.org/10.2307/3149437.
Voting Rights and Suffrage	Philosophical Origins	The understanding of how and why human beings act was and still is often described as a dualistic interaction between mind and body. Usually this is described in terms of feelings. We feel a certain way, and that feeling prompts us to act. We eat because we feel like eating. We attack others because we feel angry. This causal explanation for behavior is taken for granted, but in the 19th century, a group of psychologists believed that behavior could be studied, not as an effect of the non-observable, ethereal mind, but rather as the outcome of changes from the environment. This was behaviorism, and William Baum states: “the central idea in behaviorism can be stated simply: A science of behavior is possible” (Baum, 2017, pg. 3). One of the most influential behaviorists, BF Skinner, was a radical behaviorist where instead of merely positing that only behavior could be objectively observed, went one step further in saying that all interior phenomena was a behavior like any other, and was subject to and created by the same environmental pressures as external behavior. According to Skinner, all of our behavior and dispositions are determined by our environment. What we call freedom is merely the ability to free ourselves from “harmful contacts” (Skinner, 1971, pg. 32). Slavery is when we are unable to escape of avoid harm, and what Skinner calls the “literature of freedom”—philosophical and political traditions based around rights, emancipation, and the immorality of oppression—are merely ways to “..induce people to escape from or attack those who act to control them aversively” (pg. 35). The idea of freedom as an inherent right towards autonomy in one’s actions and beliefs is wholeheartedly rejected by Skinner, and instead is reduced to being able to do what one desires when the desire arises; a desire whose arising the individual has nothing to do with. Dignity is an attribute that we use to describe someone’s character—character of course meaning a quality essential to someone’s internality, something that a radical behaviorist is very skeptical of. We do not respect someone’s action if it is done automatically, instead we value the individual who does a particular action despite whatever the environment compels them to do: “We give credit generosity when there are no obvious reasons for behaving differently…” (pg. 72). Our caring towards dignified action and character then reveals a blind spot that we have towards reality—if every behavior we do is determined and selected by the environment, no one deserves any credit towards their action, and no one is dignified for acting in a certain way. Democracy and the right to vote for behaviorists like Skinner are then merely an expression of the fundamental biological mechanism of avoiding or escaping harmful contacts. If it weren’t for the aversive state of affairs that were present in the past, the right to vote would have never come about. Voting rights came about as a way to justify the public’s resistance to the restrictors, and this is in great contrast with the “literature of freedom’s” claim that the right to vote is a way to uphold god given rights. Voting, at base, was a way to control the behavior of those in power. References: Baum, William M. Understanding Behaviorism : Behavior, Culture, and Evolution. Third edition. Chichester, West Sussex, England: Wiley-Blackwell, 2017. Skinner, B. F. (Burrhus Frederic). Beyond Freedom and Dignity. [1st ed.]. New York: Knopf, 1971.