Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Behaviorism
What have religious and philosophical traditions contributed to our understanding of this right?
Behaviorism
Burrhus Frederic Skinner, a notable American psychologist specializing in behaviorism, interpreted freedom as a conditioned misunderstanding. Expression would be classified as individual behavioral responses to environmental stimuli as it concurs with Skinner’s operant conditioning (Cherry 2023). His contribution suggests that behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to occur again and those that are punished will have a reduced likelihood of recurrence. This exists in the context of the behaviorist approach introduced to the field of psychology by John B. Watson. Also known as the father of behaviorism, he claims behaviorism “is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior” (Watson 1913, 158–177). Accordingly, inner thoughts and experiences are disconsidered as independent phenomena and behavior consists of actions that are externally shaped and conditioned. Freedom of expression would thus be understood as a fallacy under behaviorism, due to the idea that humans are inevitably shaped by their environment and not by their determined expression.
A truly free expression, shaped by personal, mental, complex internal influences, is nonexistent in the world of behaviorism as it relates to Skinner. The fundamental ability to express oneself, granted and protected by a governmental institution, is distinguished from the freedom to control how expression is shaped. A behaviorist approach would analyze expression as it relates to the environmental influences that shaped it. Where this approach conflicts with true freedom is the source of expression and not the act of expression itself. Skinner writes, “A person never becomes truly self-reliant. Even though he deals effectively with things, he is necessarily dependent upon those who have taught him to do so” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 24). His conclusion suggests there cannot be an expression that exists independently from a source of control because people exist in environments that are shaped by people and structures in influential positions. Thus, rather than refuting this idea on the grounds of social empowerment, Skinner rejected a nonscientific approach and suggested manipulating the environment to influence people’s actions (Skinner [1971] 2024, 24). Skinner did not propose this as a recommendation for only the future, rather as a societal constant that can be shaped to benefit the world. “He argued that our increasingly detailed knowledge of behavior principles can be used in designing and engineering the environmental conditions needed to produce intentionally designed behaviors” (Baldwin, “Mead and Skinner,” 115). Behaviorism is inherently permissive of expression and does not impede on the common right of freedom of expression. However, its approach is distinguished by the understanding of how free expression can be and is controlled.
Skinner modeled this control, known as operant conditioning, in a chamber commonly known as a skinner box. In this model experiment, the subject is put in a box and is rewarded or punished based on the chosen actions. Skinner experimented with rats and eventually pigeons, but his efforts encouraged a more encompassing perspective wherein humans are the subject and the world is the box. Skinner’s book, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, offers further insight into the radical behaviorism that underlines his beliefs. He encouraged psychological research in an effort to provide order to society and shape behaviors, thereby devaluing human agency and the idea of free will. He noted, “Dependence on things is not independence,” to explain why people cannot be considered free agents, because they rely on people and institutions like schools and teachers to learn (Skinner [1971] 2024, 91). Implications on freedom of expression are dependent on whether one adopts this perspective or not. For the behaviorist, especially those like Skinner who are considered radical, freedom of expression may have never existed due to the environment predetermining what is learned. In a 1958 article for Science, Skinner exemplified a practical application of this approach. He wrote, “Teaching spelling is mainly a process of shaping complex forms of behavior” (Skinner 1958, 971). The comprehensive behaviorist approach acknowledges the source and the product of human behavior and does not regard freedom of expression as separate from the scope of control.
While there is criticism within the behaviorist approach which sees flaws in societal structures rooted in lack of control from actors in influential positions, Skinner proposes solutions in his book. “The Skinnerian framework not only suggests sources of such behavior but also provides a rationale for the treatment of deviance” (Bassiouni and Sewell, "Scientific Approaches," 1350). In addressing societal imperfections, Skinner encouraged the production of a technology of behavior that would influence public policy based on behaviorist psychology studies. (Skinner [1971] 2024, 10). He suggests this technology to be useful in preventing “the catsrophe,” as he writes throughout his book. He then lists some catasrophes being “unchecked breeding, the urestrained affleunce which exhausts resources and pollutes the environment, and the imminence of nuclear war” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 208-209). Skinner’s suggested technology aims to understand human behavior to prevent foreseen dangerous outcomes and create an “environment which makes [people] wise and compassionate” (Skinner [1971] 2024, 168). However, critics of Skinner’s contributions argue against the control he suggests due to its totalitarian nature, effectively reducing the accessibility to freedoms. Noam Chomsky, a prominent linguist and activist, wrote an essay, The Case Against B.F. Skinner, in response to B.F. Skinner’s Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he wrote “He is accused of immorality and praised as a spokesman for science and rationality in human affairs” (Chomsky, 1971, 1). The behaviorist approach emphasizes strict adherence to science, while critics may claim that behaviorism neglects important scientific factors due to an exclusive focus on external and observable factors. Freedom of expression, being a field of study that is more easily observed, may be interesting to a behaviorist because its application is seen in people’s behavior.
References
Baldwin, John D. "Mead and Skinner: Agency and Determinism." Behaviorism 16, no. 2 (1988): 109–27. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41236063.
Bassiouni, M. Cherif, and Alan F. Sewell. "Scientific Approaches to Juvenile Delinquency and Criminality." DePaul Law Review 23, no. 4 (Summer 1974): 1344–1407.
Cherry, Kendra. 2023. “What Is Operant Conditioning?” Verywell Mind. February 24, 2023. https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-2794863.
Chomsky, Noam. n.d. “The Case against B.F. Skinner.” https://www.ehu.eus/HEB/wp-content/uploads/2012/KEPA/The%20Case%20Against%20B.F.%20Skinner.pdf.
Skinner, B. F. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Cambridge, MA: Hackett Publishing, 2024.
Skinner, B. F. 1958. “Teaching Machines: From the Experimental Study of Learning Come Devices Which Arrange Optimal Conditions for Self-Instruction.” Science 128, no. 3330 (October): 969–77. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.128.3330.969.
Watson, John B. "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It." Psychological Review 20, no. 2 (1913): 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074428.
“What Is Behaviorist Theory? Understanding Its Influence on the Work of a Behavior Analyst - Behavioral Collective.” 2021. June 8, 2021. https://behavioralcollective.com/insights/what-is-behaviorist-theory/#:~:text=Radical%20behaviorism%20is%20.