Privacy Rights/Legal Codification/International
Is this right enshrined in international and regional human rights treaties?
Although there are various regional and international human rights treaties protecting the right to privacy, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), as well as the European Convention for the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) are often regarded as the most fundamental and widely respected. Article 17 of the ICCPR states that “no one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence” and Article 19 continues: (1) Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference. (2) Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. (3) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others, and (b) For the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals. In his paper “The Privacy Principle,” Frederic Gilles Sourgens claims that ““these two provisions make up the backbone of the human right to privacy” (351), where protection applies to any intrusion of personal information, including thoughts opinions, religious beliefs, health, relationships, and sexual encounters (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,” 351). The ICCPR supports that the state must inform persons of reason of intrusion in non public spaces, as well as the nature of the information collected, but may intrude “to the extent proportionate with specific threats” (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,”353). The ICCPR “explicitly distinguishes between the obligations to respect and to ensure human rights, while the ECHR speaks…only of the obligation to secure in the actual text” (Milanovic “Privacy in the Digital Age,” 102). Additionally, Article 2(1) of the ICCPR claims that states are responsible for “all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction” (Milanovic “Privacy in the Digital Age,” 101). Although there are frameworks within the treaties that support the protection of privacy, there are many limitations to the legislation itself. The primary flaw is that the interpretation of ‘jurisdiction’ and ‘territory’ are contested by states (Milanovic “Privacy in the Digital Age,”101). The common conception is that human rights instruments are purely territorial, however, intelligence programs often operate outside the territory of signatory states (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,” 353). The International Court of Justice (ICJ) has ruled that “States parties to the Covenant should be bound to comply with its provisions”, (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,”353) with regional treaties such as the ECHR and American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) respecting this claim (354). However, many states reject this extraterritorial application of privacy protection, arguing that treaty rights only apply within the sovereign territory of signatory states (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,” 356). Historically, the US and other states had not expressed a clear view on the territorial scope of ICCPR (Milanovic “Privacy in the Digital Age,” 103), with the US eventually stating that there is a default presumption against extraterritorial application of the treaties in 1995 (Milanovic “Privacy in the Digital Age,”105). Additionally, countries such as China are not a party to the ICCPR or other treaties with privacy protections, and do not have domestic laws to restrict government surveillance powers (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,” 358). Russia has also attempted to counteract rulings of the European Court using domestic legislation, and France similarly minimized its basic privacy protections after the 2015 mass shootings in Paris (Sourgens, “Privacy Principle,” 358). The COVID-19 pandemic has also placed national surveillance at the forefront, as governments and research institutions use location data to keep track of cases (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,” 2). Location data is collected through phone network, wifi connections, and satellite based radio navigation (GPS) (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,” 2). Article 15 of the ECHR was updated in December 2019 to allow states to derogate in situations of: (1) war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation, (2) taking measures which are strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, and (3) provided that measures are not inconsistent with other obligations under international law (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,” 3). Data protection and privacy are included in those rights that are subject to derogation during times of crises (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,”3). Data ownership, such as location tracking, is a matter of contract law and is often included in the terms of use, leaving the legality of the practice to individual consent (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,” 3). The conclusion that Zwitter and Gstrein come to is that there is a “lack of dedicated legal frameworks to address the use of data in times of political crisis” (Zwitter and Gstrein, “Big Data,”4), therefore allowing for the infringement of privacy rights despite the existence of international and regional treaties.
REFERENCES:
Sourgens, Frederic Gilles. “The Privacy Principle.” Yale Journal of International Law, 42(2), 345-408, 2017.
Milanovic, Marko. “Human rights treaties and foreign surveillance: privacy in the digital age.” Harvard International Law Journal, 56(1), 81-146, 2015.
Zwitter, Andrej and Gstrein, Oskar J. “Big data, privacy and COVID-19 – learning from humanitarian expertise in data protection.” Int J Humanitarian Action 5, (4), 2020.