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  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Ethiopia  + (The 1955 Constitution of Ethiopia ensures … The 1955 Constitution of Ethiopia ensures the right to freedom of worship to its citizens in Article 40. The section states that “there shall be no interference with the exercise, in accordance with the law, of the rites of any religion or creed by residents of the Empire, provided that such rites are not utilized for political purposes or prejudicial to public order or morality” (“1955 Revised Constitution of Ethiopia” 1955). However, it is the 1994 Constitution that explicitly states that citizens in Ethiopia have the full legal right to freedom of religion (Ethiopia 1994). Articles 11, 21, 25, 27, and 38 of the 1994 Constitution grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination, and Article 11 declares a separation of church and state. </br></br>Ethiopia 1994. “Ethiopia 1994” Constitutenet.org</br> https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Ethiopia_1994</br></br>“1955 Revised Constitution of Ethiopia” 1955. Chilot.me</br> https://chilot.files.wordpress.com/2011/04/1955-revised-constitution-of-ethiopia1.pdf1955-revised-constitution-of-ethiopia1.pdf)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Malaysia  + (The 1957 Constitution of Malaysia declares … The 1957 Constitution of Malaysia declares in Article 10, Section 1(a) that "every citizen has the right to freedom of speech and expression." Article 10, Section 2(a) modifies this, stating: "Parliament may by law impose ... on the rights conferred by paragraph (a) of Clause (1),such restrictions as it deems necessary or expedient in the interest of the security of the Federation or any part thereof, friendly relations with other countries, public order or morality and restrictions designed to protect the privileges of Parliament or of any Legislative Assembly or to provide against contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to any offence". </br></br>References:</br></br>1957 Malaysia Constitution: http://www.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.htmlw.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.html)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Malaysia  + (The 1957 Federal Constitution of Malaysia … The 1957 Federal Constitution of Malaysia is the first piece of legal documentation that assured the right to freedom of association in Malaysia after it gained complete independence from British rule. The document declares that “all citizens have the right to form associations” in Section 1C of article 10 concerning the right to freedom of speech, assembly, and association (Malaysia 1957). Article 10, Section 2C states that " "Parliament may by law impose ... on the right conferred by paragraph (c) of Clause (1), such restrictions as it deems necessary or expedient in the interest of the security of the Federation or any part thereof, public order or morality." Article 10 Section 3 states: "Restrictions on the right to form associations conferred by paragraph (c) of Clause (1) may also be imposed by any law relating to labour or education."</br></br>References:</br></br>1957 Malaysia Constitution: http://www.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.htmlw.commonlii.org/my/legis/const/1957/2.html)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Guinea  + (The 1958 Constitution of the First Republi … The 1958 Constitution of the First Republic of Ghana does not explicitly protect freedom of expression, but lays the groundwork for freedom of speech in Article 40. The seventh Article in the constitution of the Third Republic, crafted in 1990, dictates that everyone is “free to express, to manifest and to diffuse” ideas. The most recent 2020 Constitution guarantees freedom of expression and of opinion in Article 10.</br></br>References: </br></br>Amos J.; Xydis Peaslee, Dorothy Peaslee. Constitutions of Nations, 3 https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/conatio0001&id=251&men_tab=srchresults</br></br>English Translation of the French Original Text of the Fundamental Law of 1990, 4 (2021) https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzgn0016&id=4&collection=cow&index=</br></br>English Translation Based on a Transcription of Decree D/2020/073/PRG/SGG of 6 April 2020, as Published in the Journal Officiel de la Republique de Guinee of 14 April 2020, Provided by the Web Portal for the Law of Guinea [GuiLaw], 6 (2021) https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzgn0019&id=6&men_tab=srchresultse?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzgn0019&id=6&men_tab=srchresults)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Ivory Coast  + (The 1960 Constitution of the First Republi … The 1960 Constitution of the First Republic of the Côte D’Ivoire openly states its adherence to “the principles of Democracy and of the Rights of Man, as they have been identified by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789…” (World Constitutions Illustrated). But, it makes no explicit reference to the right of free association until the 2016 Constitution of the Third Republic— Article 20 states that “Freedoms of association, assembly and peaceful demonstration are guaranteed by law” (constituteproject.org). </br></br>“Côte d’Ivoire 2016 Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 19, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cote_DIvoire_2016. </br>"Title I: Of the State and of Sovereignty," Constitution of the Republic of Cote d'Ivoire 3 November 1960 (1960): 3-4 Cote d'Ivoire 3 November 1960 (1960): 3-4)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Cameroon  + (The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a g … The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a general guarantee of those rights in the UDHR (of which one is freedom of expression): "The Federal Republic of Cameroon is democratic, secular and social. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law. It affirms its adherence to the fundamental freedoms set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Charter of the United Nations." However, the 1961 Constitution did not discuss the right to freedom of expression specifically.</br></br>Freedom of expression is specifically guaranteed in the 1972 Cameroon Constitution: "the freedom of communication, of expression, of the press, of assembly, of association, and of trade unionism, as well as the right to strike shall be guaranteed under the conditions fixed by law"</br></br>References:</br></br>1961 Constitution of Cameroon: https://condor.depaul.edu/mdelance/images/Pdfs/Federal%20Constitution%20of%20Cameroon.pdf</br></br>1972 Constitution of Cameroon as revised up to 2008: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=enect.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=en)
  • Freedom of the Press/History/Country sources/Cameroon  + (The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a g … The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a general guarantee of those rights in the UDHR (of which one is freedom of the press): "The Federal Republic of Cameroon is democratic, secular and social. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law. It affirms its adherence to the fundamental freedoms set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Charter of the United Nations." However, the 1961 Constitution did not discuss the right to freedom of the press specifically.</br>Freedom of the press is specifically guaranteed in the 1972 Cameroon Constitution: "the freedom of communication, of expression, of the press, of assembly, of association, and of trade unionism, as well as the right to strike shall be guaranteed under the conditions fixed by law"</br></br>References:</br></br>1961 Constitution of Cameroon: https://condor.depaul.edu/mdelance/images/Pdfs/Federal%20Constitution%20of%20Cameroon.pdf</br></br>1972 Constitution of Cameroon as revised up to 2008: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=enect.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=en)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Cameroon  + (The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a g … The 1961 Cameroon Constitution offered a general guarantee of those rights in the UDHR (of which one is freedom of association): "The Federal Republic of Cameroon is democratic, secular and social. It shall ensure the equality of all citizens before the law. It affirms its adherence to the fundamental freedoms set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Charter of the United Nations." However, the 1961 Constitution did not discuss the right to freedom of association specifically.</br></br>Freedom of association is specifically guaranteed in the 1972 Cameroon Constitution: "the freedom of communication, of expression, of the press, of assembly, of association, and of trade unionism, as well as the right to strike shall be guaranteed under the conditions fixed by law"</br></br>References:</br></br>1961 Constitution of Cameroon: https://condor.depaul.edu/mdelance/images/Pdfs/Federal%20Constitution%20of%20Cameroon.pdf</br></br>1972 Constitution of Cameroon as revised up to 2008: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=enect.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=en)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Togo  + (The 1963 constitution is the first instanc … The 1963 constitution is the first instance where freedom of expression is outlined in the Togolese legal system. Article 12 of the document officially enshrines the right into law. </br></br>“Constitution de la République Togolaise, 5 Mai 1963.” Library of Congress. Accessed June 26, 2023. https://www.loc.gov/item/2008700247/#amp=&page=5&item_type=booktem/2008700247/#amp=&page=5&item_type=book)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Malawi  + (The 1964 Malawi Constitution guaranteed fr … The 1964 Malawi Constitution guaranteed freedom of association in Article 11(b) and in Article 21(1). According to Article 21(1): "Except with his own consent, no person shall be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of assembly and association, that is to say, his right to assemble freely and associate with other persons and in particular to form or belong to trade unions or other associations for the protection of his interests."</br></br>Adopted on May 16, 1994, the Constitution of Malawi asserts the right to freedom of association to all citizens in the country’s legal code. Article 32 states that “[e]very person shall have the right to freedom of association, which shall include the freedom to form associations” and “[n]o person maybe be compelled to belong to an association” (Malawi 1994, 16).</br></br>References:</br></br>1964 Malawi Constitution: http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Malawi-Constitution-1964.pdf</br></br>Malawi. "Malawi's Constitution of 1994 with Amendments through 1999." Constitute Project. 1994. </br>https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/mlw136089.pdf.s://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/mlw136089.pdf.)
  • Privacy Rights/History/Country sources/Malawi  + (The 1964 Malawi Constitution protects the … The 1964 Malawi Constitution protects the person from search and the home from entry and search at article 17(1). Article 11(c) promises to the citizen of Malawi "protection for the privacy of his home and other property." Article 20(1) protected against interference with correspondence.</br></br>The 1994 Malawi Constitution protects personal privacy in Article 21. As defined in the article, personal privacy protects possessions, home, and property (Constitute Project, “Malawi 1994 rev. 2017” ).</br></br>References:</br></br>“Constitution of Malawi.” Citizenship Rights Africa. Accessed July 26, 2023. http://citizenshiprightsafrica.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Malawi-Constitution-1964.pdf</br></br>https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Malawi_ 2017? lang=enect.org/constitution/Malawi_ 2017? lang=en)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Indonesia  + (The 1964 Provisional Constitution of the R … The 1964 Provisional Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia guaranteed freedom of expression to all in Article 19.</br></br>References: </br></br>R.; Jones Supomo, Garth N., Translator. Provisional Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (1964) https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/proconindo0001&id=29&men_tab=srchresultsn.cow/proconindo0001&id=29&men_tab=srchresults)
  • Freedom of the Press/History/Country sources/Lesotho  + (The 1966 Constitution of Lesotho offers a … The 1966 Constitution of Lesotho offers a general freedom of expression. Article 14 of Lesotho’s 1993 Constitution states: “Every person shall be entitled to, and (except with his own consent) shall not be hindered in his enjoyment of, freedom of expression, including freedom to hold opinions without interference, freedom to receive ideas and information without interference, freedom to communicate ideas and information without interference (whether the communication be to the public generally or to any person or class of persons) and freedom from interference with his correspondence." (Constitute Project, “Lesotho’ Constitution of 1993 with Amendments through 2018” ).</br></br>References:</br></br>1966 Lesotho Constitution: O’LEARY, B. L. “THE CONSTITUTION OF LESOTHO: AN OUTLINE.” The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 1, no. 2 (1968): 266–70. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23240737.</br></br>1993 Lesotho Constitution:https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Lesotho_2018.tuteproject.org/constitution/Lesotho_2018.)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Cameroon  + (The 1972 constitution of Cameroon first as … The 1972 constitution of Cameroon first asserts that Freedom of religion and worship shall be guaranteed in Article 15 of the preamble. In Article 14 the state is declared secular and neutral, also opening the preamble with adherence to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While not specifically mentioned in the 1961 Constitution, it also affirms adherence to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which covers religious freedom under Article 18. </br></br>References:</br></br>1961 Constitution of Cameroon: https://condor.depaul.edu/mdelance/images/Pdfs/Federal%20Constitution%20of%20Cameroon.pdf</br></br>1972 Constitution of Cameroon as revised up to 2008: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=enect.org/constitution/Cameroon_2008?lang=en)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Suriname  + (The 1987 Constitution of the Republic of Suriname promulgates freedom of association under Chapter 5, Article 20. Organization of American States. Republic of Suriname Constitution 1987, http://www.oas.org/juridico/pdfs/mesicic4_sur_const.pdf)
  • Freedom of the Press/History/Country sources/Armenia  + (The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Ar … The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Armenia guaranteed freedom of the press. Article 24 of the 1995 Constitution of Armenia asserted freedoms relevant to freedom of the press: "Everyone is entitled to assert his or her opinion. No one shall be forced to retract or change his or her opinion. Everyone is entitled to freedom of speech, including the freedom to seek, receive and disseminate information and ideas through any medium of information, regardless of state borders." After amendment in 2005, additional language relevant to freedom of the press was added to the Constitution of Armenia: "Freedom of mass media and other means of mass information shall be guaranteed. The state shall guarantee the existence and activities of an independent and public radio and television service offering a variety of informational, cultural and entertaining programs." Article 42 of the Constitution of Armenia after amendment in 2015 state the right explicitly: "The freedom of the press, radio, television and other means of information shall be guaranteed. The State shall guarantee the activities of independent public television and radio offering diversity of informational, educational, cultural and entertainment programmes."</br></br>References:</br></br>Armenian Declaration of Independence: https://www.gov.am/en/independence/</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (with the Amendments of 27 November 2005)": http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=eng</br></br>"Amendments to the Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (2015): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=5805&lang=engww.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=5805&lang=eng)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Armenia  + (The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Ar … The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Armenia guaranteed freedom of speech. Article 24 of the 1995 Constitution of Armenia also guaranteed freedom of speech, using language that suggests modes of expression analogous to speech: "Everyone is entitled to assert his or her opinion. No one shall be forced to retract or change his or her opinion. Everyone is entitled to freedom of speech, including the freedom to seek, receive and disseminate information and ideas through any medium of information, regardless of state borders." This constitution was amended in 2005, and Article 27 of the version amended amended in 2005 specifies a guarantee of freedom of expression: "Everyone shall have the right to freely express his/her opinion. No one shall be forced to recede or change his/her opinion. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression including freedom to search for, receive and impart information and ideas by any means of information regardless of the state frontiers." </br></br>References: </br></br>Armenian Declaration of Independence: https://www.gov.am/en/independence/</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (with the Amendments of 27 November 2005)": http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=engrliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=eng)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Armenia  + (The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Ar … The 1990 Declaration of Independence of Armenia guaranteed freedom of conscience. The 1995 Constitution of Armenia contains a more detailed assertion of freedom of religion in Article 23: "Everyone is entitled to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion. The freedom to exercise one's religion and beliefs may only be restricted by law on the grounds prescribed in Article 45 of the Constitution. Amendment of the 1995 Armenia Constitution in 2005 resulted in still more specific articulation of the right: "Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right includes freedom to change the religion or belief and freedom to, either alone or in community with others manifest the religion or belief, through preaching, church ceremonies and other religious rites." In addition to this articulation of the protection of belief and protection, Article 8.1 of the Armenia Constitution as amended in 2005 "recognizes the exclusive historical mission of the Armenian Apostolic Holy Church as a national church", but also asserts the separation of church and state in Armenia. The same article also guarantees that: "Freedom of activities for all religious organizations in accordance with the law shall be guaranteed in the Republic of Armenia".</br></br>References:</br></br>Armenian Declaration of Independence: https://www.gov.am/en/independence/</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia" (1995): http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=2425&lang=eng</br></br>"Constitution of the Republic of Armenia (with the Amendments of 27 November 2005)": http://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=engrliament.am/legislation.php?sel=show&ID=1&lang=eng)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/United Kingdom  + (The 1990 Human Rights Act protects the Rig … The 1990 Human Rights Act protects the Right to assemble and associate, subject to reasonable and proportionate restrictions. The HRA primarily serves to codify the European Convention on Human Rights into British Law (the ECHR and its associated court are not related to the EU, and the UK is still a signatory).</br></br>In 1776, Richard Price, a British writer who supported the American revolution published Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, the Principles of Government, and the Justice and Policy of the War with America. Unlike other commentaries on civil rights, he includes discussion on free assembly. He describes a prohibition on “associating for any purposes, except when leave should be given us by a Lord Lieutenant or Viceroy” as being part of a “state of oppression which no country can endure.” Though he does not phrase it as a fundamental right, the fact that Price deems draconian restrictions on association oppressive implies a belief in at least a limited freedom of association. This is the first instance I could find of a political theorist invoking the concept of freedom of association (or the lack thereof).</br></br>There is a more explicit case for free association in John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty (1859). Mill lays a broad notion of individual liberty. He then argues that “from this liberty of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination among individuals; freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to others: the persons combining being supposed to be of full age, and not forced or deceived (16).”</br>Before any British thinkers espoused freedom of association as a right, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and David Hume addressed the issue (as Boyd helpfully summarizes). Hobbes detested associations, referring to them as “lesser commonwealths in the bowels of a greater, like worms in the entrails of a natural man” (257).</br></br>Locke disagreed with Hobbes’ cynical perspective on groups. John Locke’s “A Letter Concerning Toleration” primarily concerns religious associations, but he extends certain arguments to associations in general. The italicized text below is Boyd’s summarization (241), where sections in quotes come directly from “A Letter.” As Boyd notes, though Locke defends policies that allow freer association, he does so because of their practical benefits, not because it is a fundamental right (2008, 241).</br></br>“Suppose this Business of Religion were let alone,” Locke hypothesizes, “and that there were some other Distinction made between men and men, upon account of their different Complexions, Shapes, and Features.” Under conditions of differential treatment, such persons, “united together by one common persecution,” would become just as dangerous and disruptive.26 Conversely, if the state eliminated special privileges, on the one hand, or disproportionate burdens, on the other, then supposedly intractable religious or ethnic affiliations would become matters of complete indifference, no more or less contentious than other private decisions about how to spend one’s money, manage one’s estates, or marry off one’s daughter. Finally, David Hume’s “Of Parties in General” (1742) is another important piece of Enlightenment work skeptical of associations. His position is more nuanced that Hobbes; he understands that association may exist for different purposes. Factions “of interest” are deemed less dangerous than factions “of principle.” Regarding factions of principle, he wonders the following: “But where the difference of principle is attended with no contrariety of action, but every one may follow his own way, without interfering with his neighbour, as happens in all religious controversies; what madness, what fury can beget such unhappy and such fatal divisions?”</br></br>References:</br></br>Boyd, Richard. “THE MADISONIAN PARADOX OF FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION.” Social philosophy & policy 25, no. 2 (2008): 235–262.</br></br>Locke, John. “Letter Concerning Toleration”</br></br>Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty</br></br>Price, Richard. Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty. London: Edward and Charles Dilly and Thomas Cadell, 1776.</br></br>While there are multiple instance of implied rights of association and petition such as the Magna Carta and the Petition of Right in 1628, the first explicit right to association is Trade Union Act, 1871 which granted the right to form and join trade unions for the purpose of protecting their interests and improving working conditions.</br></br>Trade Union Act, 1871. 1871. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/98373/117044/F1671923749/IRL98373.pdf.CTRONIC/98373/117044/F1671923749/IRL98373.pdf.)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Sierra Leone  + (The 1991 Constitution of Sierra Leone cove … The 1991 Constitution of Sierra Leone covers freedom of association in chapter III Article 15.A.</br></br>THE CONSTITUTION OF SIERRA LEONE. International Labour Organization. https://www.ilo.org/dyn/natlex/docs/ELECTRONIC/26723/90483/F311875481/SLE26723.pdf </br></br>Constitutional History of Sierra Leone. Constitution Net. https://constitutionnet.org/country/sierra-leone//constitutionnet.org/country/sierra-leone)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Laos  + (The 1991 Constitution of the Lao People’s … The 1991 Constitution of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic does not formally protect freedom of expression, but does grant the right to free speech and press in Article 31. This freedom was not stated in the original 1947 Constitution.</br></br>References:</br></br>Constitution of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, 40 (1991).o People’s Democratic Republic, 40 (1991).)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/North Macedonia  + (The 1991 Constitution of the Republic of M … The 1991 Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia, enacted after the breakup of Yugoslavia, protects the “free expression of national identity” in Article 8 and free thought and public expression in Article 16.</br></br>References:</br></br>Constitution of the Republic of Macedonia, 1991. Government of North Macedonia (1991), World Constitutions Illustrated, HeinOnline: https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzmk0010&i=1inonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzmk0010&i=1)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Madagascar  + (The 1992 Constitution of Madagascar was a … The 1992 Constitution of Madagascar was a democratic document that gave citizens the right to freedom of association. Article 10 of the Constitution states that freedom of association, among other rights, is guaranteed to all and may only be limited in the circumstances outlined (“Madagascar: Constitution”).</br></br>“Madagascar: Constitution” 1992. Refworld</br>https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5a98.htmlps://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5a98.html)
  • Privacy Rights/History/Country sources/Switzerland  + (The 1992 Federal Act on Data Protection wa … The 1992 Federal Act on Data Protection was the first formal protection of privacy in Switzerland (DLA Piper, “Data protection laws of the world: Switzerland”). Since then, the right to privacy was added to the 1999 Swiss Constitution. Article 13 of the current Swiss Constitution is titled Right to Privacy. “Every person has the right to privacy in their private and family life and in their home, and in relation to their mail and telecommunications. Every person has the right to be protected against the misuse of their personal data.” (Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation). Switzerland is not a member of the EU, so they do not follow the GDPR. However, a revision of the Federal Act on Data Protection (FADP) was passed in 2020. This law is essentially the same as the GDPR and serves to protect the data of Swiss citizens from unlawful use, including privacy protections for certain kinds of data like “sensitive personal data” which includes data relating to a persons religious, philosophical, or political views, their health, their genetic and biometric data, and more. (Federal Act on Data Protection)</br></br>References:</br></br>DLA Piper, “Data protection laws of the world: Switzerland”: https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/index.html?t=law&c=CH </br></br>Federal Constitution of the Swiss Confederation. “Chapter 1: Fundamental RIghts.” HeinOnline, 1999. https://heinonline-org.proxy.lib.miamioh.edu/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzch0349&id=4&men_tab=srchresults.</br></br>Fedlex. “Federal Act on Data Protection,” 2023. https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/2022/491/enion,” 2023. https://www.fedlex.admin.ch/eli/cc/2022/491/en)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Oman  + (The 1996 Basic Statute of the State of Oma … The 1996 Basic Statute of the State of Oman guarantees the freedom of expression and opinion through a variety of methods including oral and written within the limits of the law. The state of emergency provisions of the Statute does not mention any limitations of freedom of expression.</br></br>References:</br></br>Basic Statute of the State of Oman, 1996. Government of Oman, World Constitutions Illustrated, HeinOnline: https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzom0002&i=1inonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzom0002&i=1)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Sudan  + (The 1998 Constitution of The Republic of S … The 1998 Constitution of The Republic of Sudan, does not explicitly mention freedom of association, however, Article 26 protects the freedom of succession and organization which is understood to be freedom of Association. The Following draft in the 2005 Constitution does specify freedom of association in article 40.</br></br>CIA World Factbook. Sudan. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sudan/#government </br></br>Prior Constitution of The Republic of Sudan. 1998. University of Minnesota, Human Rights Library. http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/sudpriorconst.html </br></br>Constitute Project. Constitution of the Republic of Sudan. 2005. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Sudan_2005stituteproject.org/constitution/Sudan_2005)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/United States  + (The 1st Amendment to the US Constitution w … The 1st Amendment to the US Constitution was the earliest piece of federal legislation in the country’s history to protect freedom of speech. The original document became law in 1788, while the Bill of Rights, which included the First Amendment, was ratified in 1791. </br></br> “The United States Constitution.” National Constitution Center. Accessed June 27, 2023. https://constitutioncenter.org/the-constitution/full-textutioncenter.org/the-constitution/full-text)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Iceland  + (The 54th Article of the 1874 Constitutiona … The 54th Article of the 1874 Constitutional Law for the Special Affairs of Iceland guaranteed freedom of opinion in print. Interestingly, it also stipulated that no restrictive measures or attempts at censorship “can ever be introduced.” Thus, the 1944 Constitution of the Republic of Iceland still protects this freedom and restricts attempts to undo it.</br></br>References:</br></br> British and Foreign State Papers (1873-1874). https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0065&id=1005&men_tab=srchresults</br></br>British and Foreign State Papers (1943-1945). https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0145&id=614&men_tab=srchresults&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs0145&id=614&men_tab=srchresults)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Andorra  + (The Andorran constitution ensures freedom … The Andorran constitution ensures freedom of expression and the freedom to share information in the 12th article of their constitution. This right was codified in 1993 and includes a prohibition on public censorship.</br></br>“Andorra 1993 Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed September 14, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Andorra_1993?lang=en.ect.org/constitution/Andorra_1993?lang=en.)
  • Voting Rights and Suffrage/History/Country sources/The Bahamas  + (The Bahamas Parliamentary Elections Act of … The Bahamas Parliamentary Elections Act of 1992 specifies the registration of voters, how the electoral broadcasting council shall conduct its work, how elections are performed and how nominations are seeked (Political Database of the Americas, “Bahamas: Parliamentary Elections Act, 1992” ).as: Parliamentary Elections Act, 1992” ).)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Bahrain  + (The Bahrain Constitution of 1973 contains … The Bahrain Constitution of 1973 contains the first assertion of religious freedom in the country’s independent history. Article 22 articulates this right as follows: "Freedom of conscience is absolute. The State shall guarantee the inviolability of places of worship and the freedom to perform religious rites and to hold religious processions and meetings in accordance with the customs observed in the country." The 2002 Bahrain Constitution with amendments through 2017 also protects freedom of religion, Article 18 protects against discrimination based on religion. Article 22 protects freedom of religious thought, stating: "Freedom of conscience is absolute. The State guarantees the inviolability of worship, and the freedom to perform religious rites and hold religious parades and meetings in accordance with the customs observed in the country." It is noteworthy that Article 2 states Islam is the official religion and legislation is guided by Islamic Shari’a.</br></br>References:</br></br>“Bahrain Old Constitution (1973).” International Constitutional Law Project. Accessed July 20, 2023. https://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/ba01000_.html</br></br>Bahrain 2002 (Rev. 2017) Constitution.” Constitute:. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Bahrain_2017?lang=en.ect.org/constitution/Bahrain_2017?lang=en.)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Belarus  + (The Belarus Constitution of 1994 contains … The Belarus Constitution of 1994 contains the first assertion of freedom of religion in the country’s post-Soviet history. Articles 14, 16, and 31 grant religious freedom and protections. Article 5 bans activities of political parties and public associations with the aim of religious hatred. </br></br>References:</br></br>1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzby0006&id=4&men_tab=srchresults</br></br>1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus as amended in 1996: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/South Sudan  + (The Bill of Rights, Part II of the Interim … The Bill of Rights, Part II of the Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan, first mentions freedom of Association under article 40. The Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan was adopted in 2005, prior to independence from Sudan in 2011.</br></br>CIA World FactBook. South Sudan. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-sudan/#government </br></br>The interim Constitution of Southern Sudan. 2005. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4ba74c4a2.pdftps://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4ba74c4a2.pdf)
  • Freedom of the Press/History/Country sources/Brunei  + (The Brunei Constitution contains no protec … The Brunei Constitution contains no protections for freedom of the press and grants the government powers for “censorship, the control and suppression of publications, writings, maps, plans, photographs, communications and means of communication” in states of emergency” (Constitute Project, “Brunei Darussalam's Constitution of 1959 with Amendments through 2006” ).</br></br>References: </br></br>1959 Constitution of Brunei Darussalam, with Revisions to 2006: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Brunei_2006tituteproject.org/constitution/Brunei_2006)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Equatorial Guinea  + (The Constitution of 1973 of Equatorial Gui … The Constitution of 1973 of Equatorial Guinea addresses freedom of religion and belief in Article 35. Though it states that citizens can practice religion within the confines of the law, they are not allowed to use faith or religious beliefs to oppose the principles and purposes of the State (“Constitucion de 1973” 1973). Under the 1991 Constitution of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, Articles 13(f), Article 15.1, and 24.3-4 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. </br></br>“Constitucion de 1973” 1973. Guinea Ecuatorial</br></br>https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Equatorial_Guinea_2012.pdf?lang=enitution/Equatorial_Guinea_2012.pdf?lang=en)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Poland  + (The Constitution of 1997 was the first doc … The Constitution of 1997 was the first document to protect freedom of expression in the present-day Republic of Poland, with Article 54 specifically outlining the right. Article 54 of the 1997 Constitution of Poland states: "The freedom to express opinions, to acquire and to disseminate information shall be ensured to everyone.” That said, past Polish governments have protected this right through a variety of legal documents, the earliest being the 1921 Constitution of the Republic of Poland. </br></br>Article 104 of the 1921 constitution states: “Every citizen has the right to express his ideas and opinions freely, provided that in so doing he does not violate the law.” </br></br>Article 105 of the same further stipulates: “Liberty of the Press is guaranteed. The Press shall not be subject to censorship and shall not be subsidized…” </br></br>Article 5 of the 1935 constitution reaffirms this right: “(2) The State assures its citizens the possibility of developing their personal capabilities, as also liberty of conscience, speech, and assembly. (3) The limit of these liberties is the common good.”</br></br></br>References: </br></br>“Constitution of the Republic of Poland, March 17 1921.” Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Accessed July 17, 2023. http://libr.sejm.gov.pl/tek01/txt/kpol/e1921.html</br></br>“Constitution of the Republic of Poland of 2nd April, 1997.” Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Accessed July 17, 2023. https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm</br></br>“Poland 1997,” Constitute Project, accessed June 11, 2024, https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Poland_1997</br></br>“The Polish Republic,” HeinOnline, accessed June 7, 2024. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzsn0036&id=4&collection=cow&index=</br>(p.77)</br></br>“Constitution of the Republic of Poland (April 23rd, 1935)”. HeinOnline. Accessed June 7, 2024. https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzsn0036&id=4&collection=cow&index= (p.12)e=hein.cow/zzsn0036&id=4&collection=cow&index= (p.12))
  • Voting Rights and Suffrage/Philosophical Origins/Tradition contributions/Roman Legal and Political Thought  + (The Constitution of Ancient Rome consisted … The Constitution of Ancient Rome consisted largely of unwritten laws and was commonly enforced according to precedent and tradition. Hence, the right to vote and to participate in the electoral process was not written explicitly within the Constitution of the Roman Republic (Lintott 2015, 3). Greek historian Polybius did explain, however, that “the people had the right to make or rescind any law,” and he emphasized the sovereignty of the Roman people who would validate Roman political decisions (Atkins 2018, 9). Within Ancient Rome, voting assemblies would give their approval of the laws and the magistrates. Such assemblies were referred to as “the people,” and these groups, which excluded women and slaves, would represent the Roman citizens (Atkins 2018, 19). This differed from a system of “one-man, one-vote” as was employed in Athens. The three assemblies of Rome included the Curiate Assembly, the Tribal Assembly, and the Centuriate Assembly. Roman assemblies were formed on the basis of wealth, military status, and sometimes religion (Hall 1964, 270). The election of consuls, the gathering of assemblies, and other voting procedures were not explained within the Constitution or in any specific legislature, however, they were commonly referred to in books from religious colleges, which had some authority at the time (Lintott 2015, 4). </br></br>The right to vote was often limited by the fact that not all votes carried the same weight. The successive order in which groups voted could have influenced election outcomes and the speed with which election outcomes reached a majority. Members of the higher class were commonly in assemblies with fewer people, allowing their individual voice and vote to be more impactful than that of someone from a lower class in a larger assembly. Similarly, group decisions dictated the vote, rather than individual votes. It is likely that more powerful men or families within each assembly would have had more power and influence over their assembly (Hall 1964, 270). To this extent, voting blocks could be organized in order to favor certain political agendas (Atkins 2018, 21). The sovereignty of the citizens of Rome was subject to limitations. In Rome, the citizens were limited insofar as the electoral decisions made by voting assemblies had to be approved by the Roman aristocratic council. Citizens taking part in voting assemblies were not given the ability to propose new legislation, rather they were only able to vote for or against legislation introduced by magistrates (Atkins 2018, 19). </br></br>Roman historian Titus Livius was more concerned with achieving political ownership rather than equal citizen participation. Livius argued that “equal liberty” for the people meant that they would be able to elect whoever they wanted to the magistrate. To this extent, “equal liberty” meant citizens having complete decision making power over who would govern (Atkins 2018, 51). Gaius Canuleius, like Livius, supported opening up the consulship to allow plebeians to join, though he was more concerned with equal citizen participation, suggesting that all citizens should have an equal vote in order to avoid domination (Atkins 2018, 52). Although Ancient Rome did not necessarily achieve to the fullest extent such political ownership or equal citizen participation, and hence there is some debate over whether Ancient Rome truly was a democracy, Romans did recognize the need for checks and balances in a stable regime.</br></br>References:</br></br>Atkins, Jed W. Roman Political Thought. Cambridge, United Kingdom ;: Cambridge University Press, 2018.</br></br>Hall, Ursula. “Voting Procedure in Roman Assemblies.” Historia : Zeitschrift für alte Geschichte 13, no. 3 (1964): 267–306.</br></br>Lintott, A. W. (Andrew William). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford ;: Oxford University Press, 2003.. Oxford ;: Oxford University Press, 2003.)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Belarus  + (The Constitution of Belarus originally ado … The Constitution of Belarus originally adopted in 1994 including Section II outlines the protected freedom of expression in Article 33. </br></br>References:</br></br>1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus: https://heinonline-org.proxygw.wrlc.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzby0006&id=4&men_tab=srchresults</br></br>1994 Constitution of the Republic of Belarus as amended in 1996: https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2003)065-e)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Brunei  + (The Constitution of Brunei Declares the Sh … The Constitution of Brunei Declares the Shafi’i school of Sunni Islam (Shafeite sect) the Official religion of the country, Part IX 84.1 states that all no person shall be appointed to any office not professing the Islamic religion. However, Part II, Article 3, Section 1 states, “all other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony by the persons professing them.” This Assertion is first seen in the 1959 Constitution of Brunei Darussalam. </br></br>References:</br></br>CIA World Factbook. Brunei. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brunei/#government </br></br>U.S. Department of State 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Brunei https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/brunei </br></br>International Commission of Jurists. Constitution of Brunei Darussalam 1959. https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Brunei-Constitution-1959-eng.pdfs/2013/04/Brunei-Constitution-1959-eng.pdf)
  • Voting Rights and Suffrage/History/Country sources/Chile  + (The Constitution of Chile, Chapter II, Nat … The Constitution of Chile, Chapter II, Nationality and Citizenship, Article 13 grants those Chileans the right to vote "who have reached the age of eighteen years and who have never been sentenced to afflictive punishment.". (Constitute Project, “Chile's Constitution of 1980 with Amendments through 2021” ). Women were legally entitled to vote in Chile beginning in 1949.</br></br>References:</br></br>1980 Chile Constitution with revisions up to 2021: https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Chile_2021</br></br>Ramirez, Francisco O, Yasemin Soysal, and Suzanne Shanahan. “The Changing Logic of Political Citizenship: Cross-National Acquisition of Women’s Suffrage Rights, 1890 to 1990.” American Sociological Review 62.5 (1997): 744.ican Sociological Review 62.5 (1997): 744.)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Costa Rica  + (The Constitution of Costa Rica was ratified on 1949 November 7. Article 75 both declares the Roman Catholic Church as the official religion of Costa Rica and grants freedom of religion. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Costa_Rica_2011.pdf)
  • Privacy Rights/History/Country sources/East Timor  + (The Constitution of East Timor, or Timor-L … The Constitution of East Timor, or Timor-Leste, protects the right to private life, home, and communication during evidence collection in Article 34, privacy in general in Article 36, and privacy in the home and communication in Article 37. The text of Section 36 is noteworthy for the generality of its protection:</br>"Every individual has the right to honour, good name and reputation, protection of his or her public image and privacy of his or her personal and family life."</br></br>References:</br></br>2002. Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. http://timor-leste.gov.tl/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/Constitution_RDTL_ENG.pdf.uploads/2010/03/Constitution_RDTL_ENG.pdf.)
  • Voting Rights and Suffrage/History/Country sources/El Salvador  + (The Constitution of El Salvador grants its … The Constitution of El Salvador grants its citizens political rights under Chapter III, Citizens, Their Political Rights and Duties in The Electoral Body. Article 71 allows those over the age of 18 to vote and Article 72 secures the exercise of suffrage (Constitute Project, “El Salvador's Constitution of 1983 with Amendments through 2014” )of 1983 with Amendments through 2014” ))
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Eswatini  + (The Constitution of Eswatini, ratified Oct … The Constitution of Eswatini, ratified October 4, 2004, was the first official document to protect association. The right is protected under Chapter III, Article 25 (“Eswatini 2005 Constitution”, 2004). </br></br>“Eswatini 2005 Constitution.” 2004. Constitute. October 4. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Swaziland_2005?lang=en.t.org/constitution/Swaziland_2005?lang=en.)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Ghana  + (The Constitution of Ghana was ratified 28 … The Constitution of Ghana was ratified 28 April 1992. Articles 12.2, 17.2, 17.3, 21.1(c), and 26.1 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 21 Section 1.c states that “[a]ll persons shall have the right to… freedom to practice any religion and to manifest such practice…”. </br></br>Parliament of Ghana. “The Constitution of the Republic of Ghana 1992.” Judicial Service of Ghana. Republic of Ghana Judiciary , 1992. Last modified 1992. Accessed June 14, 2022. https://www.judicial.gov.gh/index.php/preamble. </br></br>“Ghana 1992 (Rev. 1996) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 21, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Ghana_1996.tituteproject.org/constitution/Ghana_1996.)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/Greece  + (The Constitution of Greece was ratified 11 … The Constitution of Greece was ratified 11 June 1975. Part 1 Section II Article 3.1-2 of Greece’s constitution establishes “[t]he prevailing religion in Greece is that of the Eastern Orthodox Church of Christ…” and that “the ecclesiastical regime existing in certain districts of the State shall not be deemed contrary to the provisions of the preceding paragraph” (constituteproject.org). Articles 5.2 and 13 protect religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Part 2 Article 13.1-2 states that “Freedom of religious conscience is inviolable. The enjoyment of civil rights and liberties does not depend on the individual's religious beliefs. All known religions shall be free and their rites of worship shall be performed unhindered and under the protection of the law. The practice of rites of worship is not allowed to offend public order or the good usages. Proselytism is prohibited” (constituteproject.org). </br></br>“Greece 1975 (Rev. 2008) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 21, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Greece_2008.</br></br>Hellenic Parliament. “001-156 Syntagma UK New - Hellenic Parliament.” Hellenic Parliament. Hellenic Parliament, 2008. Last modified 2008. Accessed June 14, 2022. https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/f3c70a23-7696-49db-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf.b-9148-f24dce6a27c8/001-156%20aggliko.pdf.)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/India  + (The Constitution of India Bill (also refer … The Constitution of India Bill (also referred to as the Swaraj Bill) codified in 1895 was the first to protect freedom of expression.</br></br>Following independence from Britain, India created its draft constitution in 1948, which was the first document to grant Indians freedom of speech and expression. This right was reaffirmed in the 1949/50 Constitution.</br></br>References:</br></br>“Constitution of India.” 2015. CAD. June. https://www.constitutionofindia.net/historical_constitutions/the_constitution_of_india_bill__unknown__1895__1st%20January%201895#:~:text=The%20Constitution%20of%20India%20Bill%201895%2C%20also%20referred%20to%20as,albeit%20within%20the%20British%20Empire.</br></br>English original text of the Draft Constitution of 1948, 652 (2011) https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzin0011&id=4&men_tab=srchresults</br></br>English original text of the Constitution of 1949, 39 (2011) https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzin0012&id=6&men_tab=srchresults=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzin0012&id=6&men_tab=srchresults)
  • Freedom of Religion/History/Country sources/India  + (The Constitution of India was ratified on … The Constitution of India was ratified on November 29, 1949. Articles 15, 16.2, 23.2, 25, 26, 27, 29.2, 30, and 325 grant religious Freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 371 grants special religious protections throughout various states and religions of India. </br>Article 25 Section 1 states that “[s]ubject to public order, morality and health and to the other provisions of this Part, all persons are equally entitled to freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practise and propagate religion” (constituteproject.org). According to the US Department of State in 2021, “ten of 28 states have laws restricting religious conversions. Four state governments have laws imposing penalties against so-called forced religious conversions for the purpose of marriage…” (state.gov).</br></br>Constituent Assembly. “The Constitution of India.” Government of India. Department of Legislation , November 26, 2021. Last modified November 26, 2021. Accessed June 14, 2022. https://legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/COI...pdf. </br></br>“India - United States Department of State.” U.S. Department of State, June 10, 2022. https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/india/.</br></br>“India 1949 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 21, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/India_2016.tituteproject.org/constitution/India_2016.)
  • Freedom of Association/History/Country sources/Mauritius  + (The Constitution of Mauritius, adopted in … The Constitution of Mauritius, adopted in 1968 after the country’s independence, protects the right to association. This provision is found in section 3 “Fundamental rights and freedoms of an individual” under Chapter II of the Constitution. (Mauritius 1968)</br></br>Mauritius. “Mauritius 1968 (rev. 2016) Constitution” Constitute 1968</br> https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Mauritius_2016uteproject.org/constitution/Mauritius_2016)
  • Freedom of Expression/History/Country sources/Nauru  + (The Constitution of Nauru, enacted in 1968 … The Constitution of Nauru, enacted in 1968 promises in Article 12 the freedom of expression and in Article 12 Section 3a only limits the right if it is “reasonably required” in the interests of public defense, safety, security, health, and morality.</br></br>References:</br></br>Constitution of Nauru, 1968. Government of Nauru (consulted 2009), World Constitutions Illustrated, HeinOnline: https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zznr0001&i=1inonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zznr0001&i=1)
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