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The Constitution of Niger was ratified on 31 October 2010. Articles 8, 17, and 30 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 3 declares a separation of church and state. Article 30 of the 2010 Niger constitution ostates: “Any person has the right to freedom of thought, of opinion, of expression, of conscience, of religion and of worship [culte]” (constituteproject.org).
“Niger 2010 (Rev. 2017) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Niger_2017. +
Article 23.1 of the 1960 Nigerian constitution is the first time freedom of religion was protected for Nigerian citizens. It states: “Every person shall be entitled to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, including freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom… to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance” (Hein Online).
The current Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria was ratified on May 29, 1999. Articles 15.2, 38, and 42.1 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious freedom. Article 10 forbids a declaration of a state religion. Article 38.1 of the current constitution uses the same language concerning freedom of religion as the 1960 Constitution (constituteproject.org).
"Chapter III: Fundamental Rights." CONSTITUTION OF THE FEDERATION OF NIGERIA, pp. [17]-[27]. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzng0011&i=22.
“Nigeria 1999 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Nigeria_2011.
National Assembly of Nigeria. “Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.” Nigeria Law. Nigeria Law, 2011. Last modified 2011. Accessed June 23, 2022. http://www.nigeria-law.org/ConstitutionOfTheFederalRepublicOfNigeria.htm. +
Freedom of religion was first established in North Korea under Part II Article 14 of the 1948 constitution which stated that “[e]very citizen shall have freedom of religion…” (Hein Online). Freedom of religion is now conditionally protected under Article 68 of the 1972 constitution. It states that “[c]itizens have freedom of religious belief. This right is granted through the approval of the construction of religious buildings and the holding of religious ceremonies. Religion must not be used as a pretext for drawing in foreign forces or for harming the State or social order” (constituteproject.org).
“Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of) 1972 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peoples_Republic_of_Korea_2016.
"Part II: General Provisions." Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, pp. 2-4. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzkp0005&i=2. +
The Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia was ratified on 17 November 1991. Articles 9, 19, 20, 48, 54, 110, and amendments VII.2 and VIII.1 grant religious freedom, equality and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 19 and Amendment VII.1 declares a separation of church and state.
Article 19 states: “The freedom of religious confession is guaranteed. The right to express one's faith freely and publicly, individually or with others is guaranteed” (constituteproject.org). It also further elaborates and states that “[t]he Macedonian Orthodox Church and other religious communities and groups are separate from the state and equal before the law…” (constituteproject.org).
“North Macedonia (Republic of) 1991 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Macedonia_2011.
Republic of Macedonia. “Constitution of the Republic of North Macedonia.” Government of the Republic of North Macedonia. Last modified 2019. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://vlada.mk/sites/default/files/dokumenti/zakoni/the_constitution_of_the_republic_of_north_macedonia_containing_the_valid_constitutional_provisions_in_force_as_amended_by_constitutional_amendments_i-xxxvi.pdf. +
In 2012, Norway officially and explicitly guaranteed the freedom of religion through a constitutional amendment securing a secular Norwegian state.
Sources:
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 20, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/zzno0083&id=3&men_tab=srchresults. +
Freedom of religion is conditionally protected in Oman under Article 28 of the 1996 constitution: “The freedom to practice religious rites according to recognised customs is protected, provided it does not violate the public order or contradict morals” (constituteproject.org). However, Article 2 also establishes that “[t]he religion of the State is Islam and Islamic Sharia is the basis for legislation” (constituteproject.org).
“Oman 1996 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Oman_2011.
Sultan Haitham . “ROYAL DECREE NO. (101/96).” Ministry of Justice and Legal Affairs . Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.mjla.gov.om/eng/basicstatute.aspx. +
Part II Article 18(a) of the first Pakistani constitution of 1956 states that while Islam is the state religion, freedom of religion is conditionally protected: “Subject to law, public order and morality… every citizen shall have the right to profess, practice and propagate any religion…” (Hein Online). This continues to be protected in Part I Section 2 of the current constitution which was ratified in 1973 (constituteproject.org).
“Pakistan 1973 (Reinst. 2002, Rev. 2018) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Pakistan_2018.
"Part II: Fundamental Rights." Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, pp. [27]-[37]. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzpk0008&i=34. +
The Constitution of the Republic of Palau was ratified on 9 July 1980. Articles IV section 1 and section 5 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article IV section 1 declares no official state religion.
Article IV Section 1 states “[t]he government shall take no action to deny or impair the freedom of conscience or of philosophical or religious belief of any person nor take any action to compel, prohibit or hinder the exercise of religion” (constituteproject.org).
“Palau 1981 (Rev. 1992) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Palau_1992. +
Freedom of religion in Panama was first protected in the constitution of 1904. Article 26 established that while Catholicism was recognized as the majority religion, “[t]he profession of all religions is free…” (Hein Online).
The current Constitution of Panama was ratified on October 11, 1972. Articles 19, 35, 36, 45, 67, 94, 181 and 300 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 35 recognizes that the majority of Panamanians are Catholic and article 107 declares that Catholicism is to be taught in schools. Article 35 of the 1972 constitution states that “[a]ll religions may be professed and all forms of worship practiced freely, without any other limitation than respect for Christian morality and public order. It is recognized that the Catholic religion is practiced by the majority of Panamanians" (constituteproject.org).
“Panama 1972 (Rev. 2004) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Panama_2004. +
Freedom of religion is conditionally protected under Article 45 in Papua New Guinea’s 1975 constitution: “Every person has the right to freedom of conscience, thought and religion and the practice of his religion and beliefs, including freedom to manifest and propagate his religion and beliefs in such a way as not to interfere with the freedom of others, except to the extent that the exercise of that right is regulated or restricted by a law that complies with Section 38…” (constituteproject.org). Articles 2.1, 2.5, 45, 55.1, and 233.3(aiii) grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination.
Parliament of Papua New Guinea. “Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea.” National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.parliament.gov.pg/constitution-of-the-independent-state-of-papua-new-guinea.
“Papua New Guinea 1975 (Rev. 2016) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Papua_New_Guinea_2016. +
Freedom of religion was first protected in Paraguay under the constitution of 1870. Part I Chapter I Article 3 states that while Roman Catholicism is the state religion, “Congress… shall not have power to forbid the free exercise of any other religion…” (Hein Online). The current Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay was ratified on June 20, 1992. Articles 24, 37, 63, 74 and 88 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 24 declares the relationship between the state and the Catholic church to be independent, cooperative, and autonomy. Article 24 states that “[t]he freedom of religion, of worship, and ideological [freedom] are recognized without any restrictions other than those established in this Constitution and in the law” (constituteproject.org).
"Chapter I: General Declarations." Constitution of the Republic of Paraguay, pp. 1-3. HeinOnline, https://heinonline-org.uc.idm.oclc.org/HOL/P?h=hein.cow/zzpy0009&i=2.
“Paraguay 1992 (Rev. 2011) Constitution.” Constitute. Accessed July 26, 2023. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Paraguay_2011. +
Peru enacted its first national constitution in 1823 which granted rights exclusively to men who held property and proved themselves to be literate(Peru, Constitutions, Encyclopedia.com). Over a century later, the 1933 Constitution of the Republic of Peru guarantees the freedom to religion in Title 14, Article 232 while protecting and maintaining Catholicism as the state religion.
The current Constitution of Peru was ratified on 31 December 1993. Articles 2.2, 2.3, and 37 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 50 recognizes the Catholic Church as historically, culturally, and morally important.
References:
“Peru, Constitutions Encyclopedia.com.” n.d. Www.encyclopedia.com. Accessed
June 20, 2024.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/peru-constitutions#:~:text=The%201823%20constitution%20extended%20political.
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 21, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/COWShow?collection=cow&cow_id=326.
Constitution Project. “Peru 1993 (Rev. 2021) Constitution.” Constitute. POGO, April 27, 2022. Last modified April 27, 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Peru_2021?lang=en. +
The earliest assertion to the right of religion in the Philippines was presented in the 1899 Malolos Constitution. Title III, Article 5 states, “The State recognizes the freedom and equality of all beliefs, as well as the separation of Church and State.”
The constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was ratified on February 2, 1987. Articles 3 section 5, 6 Section 28(3), 14 Section 3(3) grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit discrimination. Article 3 section 5 forbids the Philippines from the establishment of a state religion.
References:
Official Gazette. 1899. “The 1899 Malolos Constitution GOVPH.” Official Gazette
of the Republic of the Philippines. 1899.
https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/.
Constitutional Commission of 1986. “The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines: Govph.” Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/. +
As with many of Plato's views, it is challenging to definitively pinpoint his stance on privacy given the variability of his perspectives across different dialogues.
In The Republic, Plato, through Socrates, outlines a vision of an ideal state that significantly diminishes the role of privacy. He advocates for communal living among the guardian class, proposing that women and children be shared among all men and that no parent or child know their biological family (Plato, 457d). Moreover, “there mustn’t be private houses for them, nor land, nor any possession. Instead they must get their livelihood from the others, as a wage for guarding, and use it up in common all together” (Plato, 464c). This communal arrangement is intended to prevent personal ties and conflicts of interest, ensuring that the guardians' loyalty and dedication are solely to the state and its welfare.
This is reinforced in Plato’s The Laws, where the Athenian Stranger asserts that the highest form of state, government, and law is one in which "Friends have all things in common” (Moore, 1). He paints an ideal society (Magnesia) where private ownership and individual distinctions are entirely eliminated. Here too communal living is emphasized to the extent that women, children, and property are shared, and things naturally private become common. The Athenian Stranger contends that no state can be truer or more exalted in virtue unless it adopts these principles (Plato, Book V, para 13).
In The Apology and Crito, Plato presents a different view that, according to Konvitz, makes Socrates a pivotal figure in the development of the concept of privacy (Konvitz, 273). In The Apology, Socrates explains that he avoids public political activity because it is fraught with corruption and opposition to just actions. He argues that remaining a private citizen allows him to continue his philosophical mission of questioning, advising, and encouraging others to pursue virtue. Socrates asserts that those who fight for justice should do so privately to preserve their lives and integrity, suggesting that true philosophical work requires a degree of separation from the public sphere (Apology 31d-32a).
Similarly, in Crito, Socrates emphasizes the distinction between the physical body and the true self, which he identifies with the soul (Konvitz, 273). As he faces death, he tells Crito that the true Socrates is not the body that will be buried but the soul that transcends physical death. This conversation highlights Socrates' belief that the essence of a person lies in their inner self, not in their physical presence or public identity. His emphasis on the inner self versus the outer, physical existence underscores a key aspect of the concept of privacy: the idea that there is an inner realm of personal identity and thought that remains separate and protected from public intrusion (Konvitz, 273). By focusing on the soul as the true self, Socrates' philosophy supports the notion of a private, inviolable space where individuals can be truly themselves, free from external influence and societal roles. According to Adam Moore, this concept provided some backdrop for later debates regarding the importance of privacy and personal autonomy (Moore, 1).
These contrasting positions raise the question of how to reconcile Plato's stance on privacy. Some scholars like Adam Moore distinguish between the Socrates in The Republic and The Laws, and the Socrates in The Apology (Moore, 1). He regards the communal living ideas presented in The Republic and The Laws as representative of Plato's stance, which is “openly hostile towards privacy”, and the views in The Apology to be representative of Socrates' (Moore,1). Aristotle also critiques “Plato in the Republic,” arguing that both the end and the means of his proposed communal living are flawed: “The abolition of property will produce, not remove, dissension. Communism of wives and children will destroy natural affection” (Aristotle, Book II, Chapter 3). He further contends that the differentiation of functions is a natural law and trying to enforce absolute uniformity is impractical and unnatural.
References
Adam D. Moore, "Privacy," in The International Encyclopedia of Ethics, 11 Volume Set, 2nd ed., edited by Hugh LaFollette (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 2022), accessed July 27, 2024, http://faculty.washington.edu/moore2/IEEP.pdf.
Aristotle. Politics. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Bard College. Accessed July 28, 2024. https://www.bard.edu/library/arendt/pdfs/Aristotle-Politics.pdf.
Milton R. Konvitz, "Privacy and the Law: A Philosophical Prelude," Law and Contemporary Problems 31, no. 2 (1966): 272-291, accessed July 26, 2024, https://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3108&context=lcp.
Plato. The Republic of Plato. Translated with an interpretive essay by Allan Bloom. Introduction by Adam Kirsch. New York: Basic Books, 2016.
Plato. Laws. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Project Gutenberg, 2008 https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1750/1750-h/1750-h.htm.
Poland’s first constitution came in the form of the “Act of the Government,” and was enacted in 1791. Title I addresses religion by naming the Catholic religion the official religion of the country. It also grants government protection to any of those who may practice another religion.
Sources:
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 21, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/Page?handle=hein.cow/zzpl0056&id=2&collectio
n=cow&index=.
The Constitution of the Republic of Poland was ratified on April 2, 1997. Articles 25, 35.2, 53, 85.3, 233.1 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. “THE CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF POLAND OF 2nd APRIL, 1997.” The Sejm of the Republic of Poland. Last modified 1997. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm. +
Portugal’s first constitution was enacted in 1822. Title II, Article XXV assigns the Catholic religion, Apostolic and Roman, as the nations official religion while allowing others to practice and identify with their own faiths and religions. It is important to note that this is the Political Constitution of the Portuguese Monarchy which established a constitutional monarchy.
The Constitution of the Portuguese Republic was ratified on 2 April 1976. Articles 13.2, 19.6, 35.3, 41, and 59.1 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 41.4 creates a separation of Church and State.
References:
“Northwestern SSO.” n.d. Prd-Nusso.it.northwestern.edu. Accessed June 21, 2024.
https://heinonline-org.turing.library.northwestern.edu/HOL/Page?collection=cow&handle=hein.cow/bfsprs00
09&id=941&men_tab=srchresults.
Parliament of Portugal. “Constitution of the Portuguese Republic Seventh Revision.” Assembly of the Republic. Last modified 2005. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.parlamento.pt/sites/EN/Parliament/Documents/Constitution7th.pdf. +
Pragmatism, a broad philosophical tradition that traces its origins to the United States, prioritizes action over doctrine, and holds that “an idea is like a tool developed in response to surrounding conditions, and the worth of an idea is tied to its practical effects” (Rorty et al. 2004, 1). The philosophy was pioneered by key figures like Charles S. Peirce and was later expanded upon by philosophers William James and John Dewey, among others, providing different interpretations and understanding of the movement. They utilized pragmatism as a lens through which to view public and social affairs, including human rights, liberties, religion, and ethics. For pragmatists, “theory answers to practice,” meaning that ideas such as the notion of human rights and liberties “must answer to their pragmatics, their use” (Luban 2013, 5-6). Through this approach, the right to freedom of religion is as useful as the effect it has on individuals and how it matters to us as humans, which pragmatists like James and Dewey saw as giving meaning to one’s life and shaping a moral order.
Founded in the 1870s, pragmatism is a philosophical movement that advances the idea that a claim or theory is true only if it has practical use or success and called for the testing of philosophies through the scientific method. Scholar Cheryl Misak identifies three notions that pragmatists commonly share: “that standards of objectivity are historically situated but their contingency does nothing to detract from their objectivity; that knowledge has and requires no foundation; and the importance of connecting philosophical concepts to everyday life” (Bacon 2012, ix). This last idea directly impacts how pragmatists interpret religion and the right of individuals to practice their faith, as they focus on the consequences of their existence and whether it is useful in one’s everyday life: “The pragmatist approach pushes [one] to focus on the practical effects of religion on one’s existence” (Romania 2016, 96). For a pragmatist, if the consequences of an individual practicing their religion are practical and beneficial to them then it is useful and has worth. Additionally, if the theory that all humans are born with fundamental rights, including the freedom of religion, has practical benefits and matters to individuals, then it too is useful and has worth.
William James, an American philosopher and psychologist, was an important figure in early pragmatism, with many of his works developing the tradition. He touched upon religion in his book, The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature, where he wrote on “religious experience and defined it through the ecstatic experience of individuals in their real life” (Romania 2016, 96). Instead of focusing on religious doctrine and institutions, he focused on the experience of the individual, seeing “religion as a guiding principle in daily life” and useful (Romania 2016, 96). John Dewey, another early champion of pragmatism, similarly wrote in length about religion and social life. Dewey “conceived religion as a form of access to the universal values of humanity. He naturalized religion, extending its borders to any beliefs able to move people toward the realization of the highest humanistic ends” (Romania 2016, 96). This notion of the utility and practicality of religion became common in pragmatist thought, with religion being “conceived as possessing a noetic character opening the way to access an unseen moral order and to organize one’s life consistently” (Romania 2016, 96).
The relationship between human rights and pragmatism is dependent on their effectiveness in everyday life. As Joseph Betz writes in his 1978 journal article John Dewey on Human Rights: “Doctrines of social philosophy, like other concepts, are tools and instruments used to solve problems, social problems” (23). He further argues that Dewey believes that “rights make abstract freedom effective”, meaning that legal rights, such as the right to freedom of religion and expression, are necessary to make the notion of human liberties practical and applicable (Betz 1978. 28).
Through the context of pragmatism, the right to freedom of religion is worth protecting if its practical and has beneficial results. Pragmatists such as James and Dewey believe that an individual’s religion does have worth as it holds them to a moral standard: “Both William James and John Dewey conceive the existence of an unseen moral order as central to religious belief and practice” (Romania 2016, 99). They further saw it as giving meaning to the individual’s life, with scholar David Luban stating that, “the pragmatist function of religion is rather intended as a symbolic universe people use to give meaningfulness to their lives in the long run” (99). Pragmatists view the consequences of individuals practicing their faith as overall positive: “In conclusion, pragmatist accounts of religion showed some common features: moral neutrality, practice-centrality, emphasis on the experiential dimension, symbolism, individualization of faith. They do not discuss the origins of transcendent ideals but rather assess their social validity on the practical ground of subjective gratification” (Romania 2016, 104). James and Dewey also saw human rights as necessary and useful if they served their practical purpose to solve social problems. If an individual’s religion has useful and practical effects, and protecting an individual’s right to practice that religion successfully allows them to do so, then the right to freedom of religion is positive and supported by pragmatism.
Pragmatism prioritizes the practical effects of a theory or claim, believing its consequences and usefulness to be most important when evaluating its worth. They apply this to religion and the right of an individual to practice that religion. Early pragmatists such as William James and John Dewey wrote extensively on the subject of religion, believing its effects to be overall positive for an individual and society, proving its worth. The right to freedom of religion is useful as it allows individuals to receive those positive consequences that come from practicing their faith, and thus, in the context of pragmatism, the right to freedom of religion proves its worth.
References:
Bacon, M. 2012 “Pragmatism: an introduction.” Polity.
Betz, J. (1978). John Dewey on Human Rights. Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society, 14(1), 18–41. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40319827
Luban, David. 2013 "Human Rights Pragmatism and Human Dignity" Georgetown Law Faculty Publications and Other Works. 1317. https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/1317
Romania, Vincenzo. 2016 “Pragmatism, Religion and Ethics: A Review Essay. H. Deuser Et Al, The Varieties of Transcendence: Pragmatism and the Theory of Religion, New York: Fordham University Press
Rorty, Richard, Hilary Putnam, James Conant, and Gretchen Helfrich. 2004. “What Is Pragmatism?” Think 3 (8). Cambridge University Press: 71–88. doi:10.1017/S1477175600001056.
The Constitution of Qatar Dastūr was ratified on 9 April 2004. Articles 35 and 50 grant religious freedom, equality, and prohibit religious discrimination. Article 1 declares Islam the Official religion.
Qatar Constitutional Committee . “The Constitution.” Government Communications Office. Last modified 2022. Accessed June 24, 2022. https://www.gco.gov.qa/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/GCO-Constitution-English.pdf. +
Ireland’s first constitution resulted from a bilateral agreement in 1922 with the British Empire that granted Ireland independent sovereignty. Article 8 of the Constitution of the Irish Free State Act states, “Freedom of conscience and the free profession and practice of religion are, subject to public order and morality, guaranteed to every citizen, and no law may be made either directly or indirectly to endow any religion, or prohibit or restrict the free exercise thereof or give any preference, or impose any disability on account of religious belief or religious status, or affect prejudicially the right of any child to attend a school receiving public money without attending the religious instruction at the school, or make any discrimination as respects State aid between schools under the management of different religious denominations, or divert from any religious denomination or any educational institution any of its property except for the purpose of roads, railways, lighting, water or drainage works or other works of public utility, and on payment of compensation.”
References:
Book (eISB), electronic Irish Statute. n.d. “Electronic Irish Statute Book (EISB).” Www.irishstatutebook.ie. Accessed
June 21, 2024.
https://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1922/act/1/enacted/en/print#:~:text=AN%20ACT%20TO%20ENACT%20 +
The first assertion of freedom of religion was in the 1991 Constitution of the Republic of the Congo under Title II, Article 26. This article articulates freedom of conscience and belief in religious and philosophical ideas and includes the specification that no one should be relieved from fulfilling a civic duty because of religious opinion. The current Constitution of the Republic of the Congo was ratified on September 22, 2015. Articles 15 and grant religious freedom, equality, and protections. The preamble, Articles 1 and 61 declare the Republic of the Congo as a secular state.
Constitution of the Republic of Congo, Refworld, UNHCR 1992. https://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain/opendocpdf.pdf?reldoc=y&docid=52930da94
https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Congo_2015.pdf?lang=en +